.

of preaching was adapted to their scholaftic method of study. In their fermons they abounded with divifions and low comparisons; and it was very feldom that they treated any point of morality in its proper extent, or established it upon folid principles, or urged it with eloquence and fpirit. The more elaborate commentaries on fcripture were full of allegories and myftical interpretations. Those who wrote upon the rites and ceremonies of the church, wholly employed themselves in feeking or inventing myfterious reafons for the obfervance of them. But the grand bufinefs of the more eminent schoolmen, was the illuftration of Aristotle. On him incredible numbers of comments were written, of which it may juftly be faid, that they only ferved to darken counsel, by words without knowledge.

Nothing could be more unfavourable to true theology, and true fcience, than the fchool-divinity, and the fchool-philofophy. That we may judge of the ridiculous purposes to which this divinity and philofophy were applied, we fhall mention a few of the questions that were the objects of difcuffion. No less than twentyfour chapters are employed by Albertus. Magnus, in examining "whether the Angel Gabriel appeared to the Virgin Mary in the fhape of a ferpent, of a dove, of a man, or of a woman;""whether he feemed to be young or old;"" in what drefs he was;" "whether his garment was white, or of two colours ;"" whether his linen was clean or foul;" "whether he appeared in the morning, at noon, or in the evening;" "what was the colour of the Virgin Mary's hair;" "whether the was acquainted with the mechanic and liberal arts;" "whether fhe had any fkill in grammar, rhetoric, logic, mufic, aftronomy, &c." and "whether he had a thorough knowledge of the book of Sentences, and of all the chapters it contains;" a book which was compofed above eleven hundred years after her death. Some of the questions difcuffed by Thomas Aquinas were inde6

cent,

cent, as well as ridiculous: fuch as, "why Chrift was not an hermaphrodite ;" "why he did not affume the female fex;" whether there were excrements in paradife;" and "whether the faints will rife with their inteftines." Other topics of difputation, ftill more fcandalous and fhameful, we forbear to fpecify. One enquiry, which was, "whether a million of angels might not fit upon a needle's point," is truly laughable.

The abfurd veneration in which Ariftotle was held by the greatest part of the schoolmen, will appear from the extravagant things which were advanced concerning him. It was afferted, that nature herfelf had fet her fignet to what he invented. One divine maintained, that it was impoffible for the utmost ftretch of human understanding, without the particular affiftance of a genius, to penetrate into the fecrets of nature so far as Ariftotle had done. Another affirmed, that this philofopher, in all his undertakings, ufed to advife with a fpirit, which he had brought down from the fphere of Venus, by the facrifice of a haltered lamb, and fome other ceremonies. A third contended, that he had no need of fuch affiftance; and that he was able, by the mere ftrength of his natural genius, to arrive at as perfect a knowledge in divinity, as that which was communicated to our firft father when he was afleep in paradife, or to St. Paul in his extacy. It was declared by a fourth, that Ariftotle was the fore-runner of the Meffias in the mysteries of nature, as John the Baptift was in the mysteries of grace. By fome perfons it was acknowledged, that if he had not been employed in the accurate diftinction of all forts of reafonings, the church would have wanted many articles of faith. "The authority of Ariftotle, fays Nicius Erythræus, has taken too deep root to be afraid of the power of any man. His doctrine does and will flourish, and the measure of every one's understanding will be rated by what proportions of knowledge he has imbibed from his

a 4

fountain

1

fountain of learning nor will any one who has a grain of fenfe, not choofe, in matters relating to philosophy, to err with the God, if I may fo fay, of philofophers, than to think right with any other petty retailers of literature."

With all the mifapplication of their talents, the school divines and philofophers were many of them great men. Thomas Aquinas, in particular, had extraordinary abilities, which, if they had been properly directed, might have rendered him very ufeful to mankind. Nor is it to be imagined that every thing in him is trifling and ridiculous. There are, it is believed, parts of his works which might even now be read with pleasure and advantage.

So far as it is an honour to have produced the fchoolmen, our own country had its full fhare in that honour. Not to mention Lanfranc and Anfelm, Duns Scotus was a Briton, probably born in Scotland, and William Occam was an Englishman. Alexander Hales, John Baconthorp, Thomas Bradwardine, and a large lift of names might be produced, if it were neceffary to rescue them from the oblivion in which they have long flept.

At the clofe of the fifteenth century, the school philofophy ftill retained its dominion, and continued to do fo, among divines in general, to a much later period. It was not, however, fo univerfally followed as it had hitherto been; for other objects began now to engage the attention of mankind. Some few perfons went even fo far as to perceive the folly of the fcholaftic difquifitions and diftinctions, and to treat them with contempt and ridicule. Others, who ftill adhered to the fyftem, wifhed to ftrip off the uncouth and barbarous language with which it had been clothed, and to put it in a more eafy and graceful drefs: but it was not

of

of

a nature to admit of much junction with taste and elegance,

At the time to which we are now arrived, feveral circumstances had contributed, in various parts of Eu rope, to open, in a confiderable degree, the human mind; and thefe circumstances were not without their influence in Great Britain. The advantages which some of our own countrymen derived from the more early application of the Italians to polite learning, have already been defcribed. But it was the taking of Conftantinople, in 1453, which paved the way for a total revolution in European literature. The learned Greeks of that metropolis, being driven from their native country, took refuge in Italy, and carried along with them their ancient writers. These they interpreted; and the fchools which they opened for this purpose were crouded with difciples. Hence an incredible ardour was excited for claffical learning; and a new order of things was brought forward, which, in a course of time, was to have prodigious effects in enlarging the human understanding, and in improving the state of fociety. It was remarkable that this new mode of erudition was encouraged by the popes. They confidered it as a fresh expedient for eftablishing their authority over the minds of men, and extended their patronage to it with uncommon liberality. This policy of the Roman Pontiffs, though it was highly beneficial to the world, was in the end, hurtful to themselves; for it was not poffible, that the abfurd doctrines and tyrannical claims of popery could long maintain their ground against that spirit of enquiry which was foftered by the revival of ancient Literature. One of the first confequences which refulted from the application to the Gre cian authors, was, that many perfons were induced to prefer the elegant and captivating philofophy of Plato, to the fcholaftic fubtleties, and the captious logic of

Ariftotle.

Another

Another circumftance, by which the period we are now speaking of was distinguished, was the spirit of navigation and difcovery. This fpirit had, at first, principally operated among the Portuguese, owing to the ardent and enterprifing mind of Henry, prince of Portugal, whofe name will ever stand illuftrious among those who, by their efforts, have contributed the most to change the face of the earth.

-For then from ancient gloom emerg'd

The rifing world of trade. The Genius, then,
Of Navigation, that in hopeless Sloth
Had flumbered on the vaft Atlantic deep
For idle Ages, ftarting, heard at last
The Lufitanian prince, who, heav'n inspir'd,
To love of useful glory rous'd mankind,

And in unbounded Commerce mix'd the world.

The fame difpofition extended itself to different parts of Europe, and it was exerted with peculiar vigour towards the clofe of the fifteenth century. Hence it came to pass, that the new scenes which were prefented to men, and the new objects that engaged their attention, contributed to enlarge their understandings, and to affift the progrefs of human improvement in general.

Such was the fituation of things among the western European nations, when King Henry the Seventh mounted the throne of England; the ftate of knowledge and literature in whofe reign we now proceed to relate. Hitherto, from the fcantinefs of materials, we have comprehended an extenfive period in each article. For the future, we fhall confine ourselves to fingle reigns. The prefent reign, indeed, being, juft in the dawn of the revival of literature, will not detain us long: but ample amends for this defect will be made in our fucceeding volumes.

In Henry the Seventh's time, a foundation was laid for fuch a change in the order of fociety, and the man

ners