CANDLE-CANDLE-FISH acid. The use of paraffine candles is most common in Great Britain. See PARAFFINE. Ozokerit, or cérésine, which is also used in the manufacture of candles, resembles paraffine in appearance. It is obtained by purifying a sort of natural mineral wax, the principal deposit of which is found in Galicia. It is not much used except in Germany and Austria. Since cérésine candles melt at a higher temperature than paraffine, they undergo no deformation when used. Palm-oil is obtained from the west coast of Africa, especially the neighborhood of Lagos. The palm which yields it is the Elais guineensis, which produces a golden-yellow fruit of the size and shape of a pigeon's egg. By detaching its pulp from the kernel, bruising it into a paste, and then agitating it in boiling water, the oil is separated, and, rising to the surface, concretes as the water cools. About two thirds of it in weight consists of a peculiar white solid fat, called palmitine; the remainder is chiefly oleine. The manufacture of candle-wicks is fully as important as the treatment of the combustible fats, and candle-makers have studied the principles of combustion with a view to discovering methods of producing the clearest light with the minimum of smoke, odor, and trouble in snuffing. the azure-blue part, b, presents a comparatively low temperature in the illuminating envelope, c. The oxygen but partially suffices for the combustion, while in the non-illuminating part, d, products of the incomplete oxidation burn in the air in excess. The wick must be placed in the centre of the candle, or else it will remain too long, produce smoke, and darken the flame. If the end remains exactly in the centre the air will not reach it, and the wick will carbonize and form a "thief" or "waster," which, falling into the cavity at the top of the candle, will make the latter gutter, and end by obstructing the wick. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. comes incrusted, and the flame becomes un. FIG. 3.-Tallow candle after snuffing. The flame is forms on its end inside the flame. In the A flame is the result of the combustion of a gas. In a burning candle the fatty or other substances are melted and carried by the wick into the interior of the flame, where they are continuously converted into gas. We may compare the combustion of a candle to a microscopic gas-works, and, just as the gas-burner gives more or less light according as the pressure is varied, FIG. 2.-Tallow candle before snuffing. The wick be or the tip is more or less foul, or the proportion of air that reaches the gas is greater or less, just so a candle will give a different light according to the draft of air or the size and nature of the wick. Too large a wick would absorb the melted material too rapidly, the flame would be unduly increased, and the feeding of it would be effected under unfavorable conditions. Too small a wick would produce the opposite effect; around the periphery of the candle there would form a rim, which, no longer receiving a sufficient quantity of heat, would remain in a solid state; the cavity that serves as a reservoir for the liquefied material would become too full; and the candle would gutter. So the section of the candle, the size of the wick, and the draft of air in the flame must be apportioned in such a way that there shall always be an equilibrium between the quantity of material melted and that decomposed by the flame. The purity of the air, too, must be taken into account, for, just as a man needs pure air in order to live in health, so a candle has need of the same in order to burn well. During an evening party it may be observed that the brilliancy of the candles diminishes in measure as the air becomes impoverished in oxygen and enriched with carbonic acid. In the flame of a candle four parts may be distinguished. The dark nucleus, a (Fig. 1), is formed by the gas resulting from the gasification of the combustible bodies. This gas may be ignited at the point of a glass tube, A, introduced into the flame. Since the air directs itself especially toward the axis of the flame, It then becomes necessary to snuff it. In order In Austria, wicks are Candle, Electric. See ELECTRIC LIGHTING. Candle-fish, Oolakan, oo'la kăn, Oulachon, -kon, or Eulachon, u'la-kon, a sea-fish (Thaleichthys pacificus), of the salmon family, frequenting the northwestern shores of America, of about the size of the smelt, to which it is allied. It is converted by the Indians into a candle simply by passing the pith of a rush or a strip of the bark of the cypress-tree through it as a CANDLE-FLY wick, when its extreme oiliness keeps the wick blazing. Oulachon oil, a substitute for cod-liver oil, is obtained from it. This fish is a favorite article of food in British Columbia. Candle-fly, or Lantern-fly, a hemipterous insect of the group Homoptera, family Fulgorida. The large Chinese candle-fly (Fulgora candelaria) is remarkable for its greatly prolonged head, which was formerly believed to be lumiCompare LANTERN-FLY. nous. Candle-nut, the nut of Aleurites triloba, the candleberry-tree, a native of the Moluccas, Pacific islands, etc., belonging to the natural order Euphorbiacea. It is about the size of a walnut, and yields an oil used for food and for lamps, while the oily kernels are also strung together and lighted as torches. Candleberry, Bayberry, Candleberry Myrtle, Tallow-tree, or Wax Myrtle, a shrub (Myrica cerifera) common in North America, where candles are made from the waxy substance collected from a decoction of the fruit or berry. It grows abundantly in a wet soil, and seems to thrive particularly well in the neighborhood of the sea, nor does it ever seem to be found far inland. The berries intended for making candles are gathered late in autumn, and are thrown into a pot of boiling water, where the fatty or waxy substance floats on the top and is skimmed off. When congealed this substance is of a dirty-green color, somewhat intermediate in its nature between wax and tallow. After being again melted and refined it assumes a transparent green hue. Mixed with a proportion of tallow it forms candles, which burn better and slower than common tallow ones, and do not run so much in hot weather. They have also very little smoke and emit a rather agreeable_odor. Soap and sealing-wax are also made of this substance. The plant has been cultivated in France and Germany, where it grows in the open air. Another plant belonging to the same genus is the sweet-gale (Myrica gale), which grows abundantly in bogs and marshes in Scotland. It is a small shrub with leaves somewhat like the myrtle or willow, of a fragrant odor and bitter taste, and yielding an essential oil by distillation. It was formerly used in the north of Europe instead of hops, and in some places it is still so used. The catkins or cones boiled in water throw up a scum resembling beeswax, which, collected in sufficient quantities, would make candles. The plant is used to tan calf-skins. Gathered in the autumn, it dyes wool a yellow color, and is thus used both in Sweden and in Wales. The dried leaves are used to scent linen and other clothes. Can'dlemas, an ecclesiastical festival instituted by Pope Gelasius I. in 492, in commemoration of the presentation of Christ in the temple, and of the purification of the Virgin Mary. It is celebrated on 2 February, and has its name from the fact that in the Roman Catholic Church candles are blessed and carried in procession, in allusion to the words of Simeon, spoken of the infant Christ, "a light to lighten the Gentiles. » See PURIFICATION. Can'dler, Warren A., American clergyman: b. Carroll County, Ga., 23 Aug. 1857. He was graduated from Emory College, Oxford, Ga., in 1875. being licensed to preach and entering the North Georgia Conference of the Methodist CANDY Episcopal Church in that year. He was in the pastorate until July 1886, when he became editor of the Nashville Christian Advocate' (the organ of the M. E. Church South), serving in that capacity until 1888. In the latter year he became president of Emory College, but resigned in 1898 when he became a bishop of the M. E. Church South. He has written: History of Sunday Schools) (1880); 'Georgia's Educational Work (1893); Christus Auctor) (1899); High Living Great Republic' (1904); etc. and High Lives' (1901); 'Great Revivals and the Cand'lish, Robert Smith, Scottish clergyman: b. Edinburgh, 23 March 1806; d. Edinburgh, 19 Oct. 1873. He was educated at Glaspreacher, and in 1834 was transferred from Bongow University; in 1828 was licensed as a hill to St. George's, Edinburgh. In 1839 he threw himself into the conflict with the civil courts in the matter of the congregational right of election and independent church jurisdiction in matters spiritual, and soon became, next to Chalmers, the most prominent leader of the "non-intrusion" party and of the movement that culminated in the Disruption of 1843, and the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. From the death of Chalmers till his own death, Candlish was the ruling spirit in the Free Church. In 1862 he was made principal of the New College (the theological college of the Free Church), Edinburgh. He was the author of Contributions Toward the Exposition of the Book of Genesis' (1842); 'Reason and Revelation' (1859); The Fatherhood of God'; The Two Great Commandments (1860); etc. See Life,' by Wilson (1880). de, ǎl-fons loo-ē pē-ār pē-rä-mü de kän-dōl, Candolle, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus Swiss botanist: b. Paris, 28 Oct. 1806; d. 4 dolle (q.v.). He was professor of botany and April 1893. He was son of Augustin de Candirector of the Botanical Garden at Geneva, published numerous works on botanical subjects. and continued his father's Introduction to a Natural System of the Vegetable Kingdom. > Candolle, Augustin (ô-güst-ăn) Pyramus de, Swiss botanist: b. Geneva, 4 Feb. 1778; d. there, 9 Sept. 1841. He studied at Paris, where he made his reputation by his 'History of Succulent Plants,' and 'Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Plants.' In 1808 he took the chair of botany at Montpellier, where he replaced the artificial method of Linnæus by the natural method of Jussieu, and published the remarkable Elementary Theory of Botany.' After the Restoration of 1815, he returned to Geneva, where he devoted the rest of his life to his of the Vegetable Kingdom,' the continuation of great work, Introduction to a Natural System herbarium of 70,000 species of plants. which he entrusted to his son, together with an Candon, kän-dōn', Philippines, a town of the province of Ilocos Sur, situated in the northwestern part of the Island of Luzon, very near the coast. Pop. about 16,000. Candy, or Kandy, a measure of weight in the East Indies. In Madras the candy is equal to 493.7 pounds, in Bombay it is 560 pounds, and in Ceylon it is equal to 500 pounds. It is divided into from 20 to 22 maunds. In Bombay there is a unit of capacity called the candy equal to 82 imperial bushels, and elsewhere a dry CANDY-CANES VENATICI measure candy is found varying from 15 to 30 bushels. Can'dy. See CONFECTIONERY. Candytuft, a genus of plants (Iberis), of the natural order Crucifera, flowering in dense corymbs, and distinguished by an emarginate pouch with keeled and winged valves. It is indigenous to the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and several species, as Iberis umbellata, Iberis odorata, and others, are cultivated in gardens. Cane, kan, or Ken, a river in Bundelcund, British India, a tributary of the Jumna River. It follows a northeast course and is about 250 miles long. Cane-brake, a term applied to the extensive growths of the Arundinaria macrosperma, the most gigantic of the grasses, which occur in the southern portions of the United States, and are to be found covering vast extents of country in the alluvial bottoms of Central and South America. The plant is not unfamiliar in the temperate zones, as its stalks are much used for fishing-rods. Cane-brakes are indicative of rich land, as they are only to be found in perfection in the most inexhaustible soils, where, having obtained a foothold, by their more rapid growth they usurp the place of the timber. In the southern portions of the United States the plant often reaches the height of 15 and 18 feet, with a base of one to one and a half inches diameter. In more southern latitudes it is very much larger. It grows as straight as an arrow from the root, tapering off finally in a beautiful, thread-like, feathery top. The leaves commence at about two thirds of the height of the plant, and seem to be attached directly to the stalk, as the branches on which they grow, save the very top ones, are not perceptible to ordinary observation. To the hunter, progress through a canebrake is one of the most toilsome journeys that can be undertaken. Each step is disputed by the dense vegetation which rises before the intruder like a wall. In places, the cane is sometimes pressed down and interlaced, and then it becomes quite impenetrable. Under the most favorable circumstances the knife has to be freely used. Cane-brakes are often many miles in extent, always lessening in density as they reach high ground. They are favorite haunts for all kinds of game, which seek their solitudes either for protection or for the leaves for food. The deer and bear are particularly fond of the young green leaves, and upon them often become exceedingly fat. Cane-stalks being hollow, having no pith, and being divided inside every few inches into sections, they are very combustible when dried in the sun; and the air confined within the hollow sections, warming by the external heat, explodes with very considerable force, so that a cane-brake on fire gives the idea of a continued roar of distant musketry. Cane Ridge Revival. See REVIVALS, AMER ICAN. Cane Sugar. See Sugar and Sugar-MAKING. Canea, kä-ne'a (Greek KHANIA), Crete, the chief commercial town of the island, situated on the northwest coast, with a good harbor. It occupies the site of the ancient Cydonia, but the present town is due to the Venetians, from whom it was wrested by the Turks, after a two years' siege in 1669. Canea is the principal mart for exporting the productions of the island. Pop. about 20,000. See CRETE. Canella, a genus of plants belonging to the order Guttiferæ, but of which the affinities are so doubtful that it has been made the type of a distinct order, Canellaceae. They are ornamental shrubs or trees. C. alba, the wild cinnamon, is a common West Indian aromatic evergreen tree, growing to a height of from 10 to 50 feet, with a straight stem branched only at the top. It is covered with a whitish bark, by which it is easily distinguished at a distance from other trees; the leaves are placed upon short footstalks and stand alternately. They are oblong, obtuse, entire, of a dark, shining green hue, and thick like those of the laurel. The flowers are small, seldom opening, of a violet color, and grow in clusters at the tops of the branches on divided foot-stalks. The fruit is an oblong berry containing four kidney-shaped seeds of equal size. The whole tree is very aromatic, and when in blossom perfumes the whole neighborhood. The berries, when ripe, are greedily eaten by the wild pigeons of Jamaica, and impart a peculiar flavor to their flesh. The canella of commerce is the bark of the tree freed from its outward covering and dried in the shade. It is brought to Europe in long quills, which are about three fourths of an inch in diameter, somewhat thicker than cinnamon, and both externally and internally of a whitish or lightbrown hue, with a tinge of yellow. This bark is moderately warm to the taste, and aromatic and bitterish. Its smell is agreeable, and re sembles that of cloves. In distillation with water it yields an essential oil of a dark-yellowish color, and of a thick tenacious consistence, with difficulty separable from the aqueous fluid. The remaining decoction, when evaporated, leaves a very bitter extract composed of resinous and gummy matter imperfectly mixed. It has been supposed to possess a considerable share of active medicinal powers, and was formerly employed as a cure in scurvy. Now it is merely esteemed as a pleasing and aromatic bitter, and as a useful adjunct in correcting more active The powder is though nauseous medicines. given along with aloes as a stimulating purga tive. Caneph'orus, a term applied to one of the bearers of the baskets containing the implements of sacrifice in the processions of the Dionysia, Panathenæa, and other ancient Grecian festivals. It was an office of honor, much coveted by the virgins of antiquity. The term is often applied to architectural figures bearing baskets on their heads, and is sometimes improperly confounded with caryatides. Canes Venatici, kā'nēz vě-năt'ĭsă ("the hunting dogs"), one of the northern constellations added by Hevelius in 1690, between Boötes and Ursa Major. Coming in after the time of Bayer, it has none of his assigned letters; but letters & and to the two brightest stars, and Baily, in the "B. A. C." in 1845, assigned the they will probably stand, though they have not been universally accepted by astronomers. The former of the two stars is a well-known double. On the maps, the two dogs, Asterion and Chara. are represented as held in leash by Boötes, and CANETE-CANISIUS pursuing Ursa Major and the celestial pole, but this change in the figure of Boötes has of course been made since the introduction of Canes Venatici into the celestial train. The constellation is surrounded by Ursa Major, Boötes, and Coma Berenices. Cañete, Manuel, mä'noo-el kän-yatā Spanish author: b. Seville, 6 Aug. 1822; d. 4 Nov. 1891. He was educated in Cadiz. For a long time he was an official in the ministry of the interior, and was later chamberlain to King Alfonso XII. His lyric poems, published under the title, 'Poesias,' are highly esteemed, and his dramas, also successful, include Un Rebate en Granada'; El Duque de Alba'; 'La Flor de Besalu'; and 'La Esperanza de la Patria) (with Tammayo). He is best known, however, as a dramatic critic and a writer on the history of the Spanish stage. His writings in the field of criticism had much influence in the reform of the stage, which at that time was badly corrupted. Among his other works are: Farsas y Eglosas de Lucas Fernandez' (1867); La Tragedia Llamada Josefina' (1870); Escritores Españoles é Hispano-Americanis (1884); and 'Teatro Español del Siglo XVI. (1884). Canfield, James Hulme, American educator: b. Delaware, Ohio, 18 March 1847; d. New York City 29 March 1909. He was graduated from Williams College in 1868; admitted to the Michigan bar, 1872, and practised law at St. Joseph, Mich., 1872-7. He was professor of history in the State University of Kansas, 1877-91; chancellor of the University of Nebraska, 1891-5; president of the Ohio State University, 1895-9, when he was appointed librarian of Columbia University, New York. He was secretary of the National Education Association for five years, and its president for one. He published: Taxation: Plain Talk for Plain People (1883); The College Student and His Problems' (1902). Cang, Cangue, or Kia, the wooden collar or portable pillory, weighing from 50 to 60 pounds, and fitting closely round the neck, imposed upon criminals in China. It renders the wearer unable to feed or otherwise care for him self. Canga Arguelles, José, hō sã kän'ga är gwěl'yes, Spanish statesman: b. Asturias, 1770; d. 1843. In 1812 he was a member of the Cortes from Valencia, and rapidly rose to the leadership of the constitutional party; hence on the accession of Ferdinand VII. he was banished. Recalled in 1816, he became minister of finance in 1820, when the constitution was restored. Through the abolition of certain direct taxes, he caused financial disorder, and was forced to resign in 1821; was a member of the Cortes in 1822, but fled to England at the time of the revolution of 1823. Returning in 1829, he again was elected to the Cortes, where he remained true to his liberal principles. He wrote 'Memoria sobre el Credito Publico' (1820); Elementos de la Ciencia de Hacienda (1825); and 'Diccionano de Hacienda' (1827-8). Caniapuscaw, kǎn-i-ǎp'us-ka, a river in Labrador, outlet of a lake of the same name, flowing northwest into Hudson Strait; length, 400 miles. Canicatti, kä-nē-kät'tē, Sicily, a city in the province of Girgenti, situated in a grain and fruit region. Here are also sulphur mines. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agriculture. Pop. about 25,000. Canic'ula, the Dog-star or Sirius (qq.v.); hence the term, "Canicular days," the dog-days (q.v.). Cani'dæ, the dog tribe, comprising wolves, foxes, jackals, dogs, and the like, a family of carnivores, intermediate in structure and phylogeny between bears and hyenas. Their legs are long; the claws non-retractile, and in all except the lycaon there are five toes in front and four behind. The dentitions usually consist of three incisors, a great canine (a tooth which takes its name from its prominence in the dog, and is the seizing and tearing instrument); two small premolars, and two molars on each side of each jaw; but in the lower jaw there are three molars. All these teeth have the carnivorous characteristic of sharp-cutting crowns rather than broad, grinding surfaces, such as characterize the molar teeth of vegetable-eaters. Dogs are mainly diurnal and live in open uplands rather than in forests, where they obtain their prey by chasing it down; they occupy dens and burrows, and possess keen senses and great intelligence. See DOGS. For the fossil history of the family, see CARNIVORA. probably Gratidia), whom Horace loved, and Canid'ia, a Neapolitan woman (real name who deserted him. Horace, in an epode and the Satires, gives her name to a sorceress. Canigou, kä-nē-goo', one of the peaks of the Pyrenees in France. It is in the department Pyrénées-Orientales, 24 miles from Perpignan; height, 9,137 feet. Canina, Luigi, loo-ē'jē kä-në'nä, Italian archæologist and architect: b. Casale, Piedmont, 23 Oct. 1795; d. Florence, 17 Oct. 1856. He was for some time professor at Turin, and afterward of architecture lived in Rome, where he published works of great value on the antiquities of Rome, Veii, Etruria, and Tusculum, among them Ancient Architecture Described and Illustrated by Monuments (1844). flowing into the Parnahiba; length, 200 miles. Caninde, kä-nēn'dā, a river of Brazil, Ca'nis Major ("the greater dog"), a constellation of the southern hemisphere, remarkable as containing Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens. Canis Minor ("the lesser dog”), a constellation in the northern hemisphere, immediately above Canis Major, the chief star in which is Procyon. Canisius, Petrus, pa'trus kä-nish'i-us, Dutch theologian: b. Nimeguen, 8 May 1524; d. Freiburg, Switzerland, 21 Dec. 1597. He was the first man in Germany who entered the order of the Jesuits, of which he became a very active member. In 1549 he was made professor of theology, rector and vice-chancellor of the university at Ingolstadt, and in 1551 court preacher at Vienna. He afterward reformed the University of Vienna, according to the views of the order. His catechism, which has passed through more than 400 editions, is yet in use. He persuaded Ferdinand I. to adopt stringent measures CANISIUS COLLEGE—CANNIBALISM against the Protestants, and founded the colleges at Prague, Augsburg, Dillingen, and Freiburg in Switzerland. He was beatified 20 Nov. 1864. Canisius College, an educational institution in Buffalo, N. Y.; organized in 1870 under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church; reported in 1910: Professors and instructors, 25; students 473; volumes in the library, 26,500: value of property (including endowment) $385,000. Can'ities (Latin Canus, "hoary or grayhaired"), whiteness or grayness of the hair. When occurring in consequence of old age it is not a disease. Sometimes it happens suddenly, as a result of severe mental emotion. Canitz, Friedrich Rudolf Ludwig, frēd'riн roo'dolf lood'vig kä nits (BARON), German poet and diplomat: b. Berlin, 27 Nov. 1654; d. there, 16 Aug. 1699. He studied law at Leyden and Leipsic, and was made state counselor in 1697 under Frederick I. of Prussia; in 1698 he was given the rank of baron. His poems were first published anonymously after his death (1700) under the title Nebenstunde unterschiedener Gedichte'; the second edition with the name of the author appeared in 1719. They had influence on style in opposition to the mannerisms of Lohenstein and other writers of the time. Those most popular with his contemporaries are the satires and an elegy on the death of his first wife. Canker, a disease of plants. See APPLE. Cankerworm, a caterpiller of a geometoid moth of the genus Anistopteryx, destructive to fruit-trees, especially apples. See APPLE. Canlassi, Guido, gwe'dō kän-läs'sē, Italian painter: b. near Rimini, 1601; d. Vienna, 1681. He studied under Guido Reni at Bologna, and lived at Venice as court painter under the Emperor Leopold I., and later at Vienna. He is to some extent an imitator of Guido Reni, but is especially distinguished for his use of color. His chief works, mostly biblical or mythological subjects, are in Vienna, Munich, and Dresden. Can'na, one of the Hebrides, 12 miles southwest of Skye, and miles northwest of Rum. It is four and a half miles long, one mile broad, and four and a half square miles in area. The surface, nowhere higher than 800 feet, consists of trap. A hill here of basalt, called Compass Hill, reverses the magnetic needle. Can'na, a genus of plants, some species of which have fine flowers, and some, from their black, hard, heavy seeds, are called Indian shot. There are about 30 species in tropical America, with ornamental leaves, creeping rootstocks, and panicles of red or yellow flowers. C. indica is the best-known species, and C. edulis yields tous-les-mois. Can'nabis. See HEMP. Cannæ, kǎn'ē, Italy, an ancient town in Apulia, on the river Aufidus. Its site was between the modern Canosa and Barletta, and was famous for the battle in which the Romans were defeated by Hannibal (216 B.C.). The Roman army under the consuls Æmilius Paulus and Terentius Varro consisted of 87,000 men, while that of the enemy amounted only to 50,000, among whom were 10,000 horse. The battle was brought on by Varro against the better judgment of his colleague. The Romans left their strong position at Canusium on the banks of the Aufidus, and the whole army crossed the river. Varro drew up his troops on the plain, with his right wing protected by the river. At the same time Hannibal forded the Aufidus and led his small army to the attack. The battle was long, and the Romans fell in great numbers, among them the consul, Æmilius Paulus, and both the Numidian horse destroyed those who fled from proconsuls Servilius and Atilius. Hannibal's the field. The victor made 13,000 prisoners. statements, 45,000 men; according to the highThe Romans lost, according to their own lowest est, 70,000. Hannibal collected the gold rings of the knights who had fallen and sent some pecks thereof to Carthage. Can'nel Coal. See COAL. Cannes, kän, France, a seaport and health resort on the shore of the Mediterranean, in the department of Alpes-Maritimes. It is beautifully situated in a rich fruit district, has a mild and equable climate, and attracts numerous winter visitors. There are many hotels and fine villas, charming public walks, etc. Perfumes and soap are made here. Near Cannes, 1 March 1815, Napoleon landed on his escape from Elba. Pop. about 20,000. Cannibalism, the act or practice of eating human flesh by mankind; anthropophagy; also the eating by an animal, or animals, of a memothers of the pack. In the Odyssey of Homer ber of the same race; as, of a wounded wolf by we have the story of Polyphemus devouring human flesh; and in Herodotus, the Massagetæ (i. 216) are said to eat their aged parents. The Padai of India (Herodotus iii. 99) were in the habit of killing and eating their relations when they fell ill. Modern facts, the truth of which is put beyond all doubt, confirm the statements of Herodotus. Among the ancient Tupis of Brazil, when the pajé (chief) despaired of a sick man's recovery, he was by his advice put to death and devoured. Herodotus (iv. 26) also says that among the Issedones, when a man's father dies, his relations come and help to eat the dead man, whose flesh they render more palatable by mixing it with that of some animal. In the Middle Ages these stories were wonderfully enlarged, and people who had not yet embraced Christianity were pretty generally set down as anthropophagi. When the Lombards invaded Italy at the end of the 6th century it was reported of them that they ate human flesh; and a century later the same aspersions were cast on the Slavonian tribes. It became the fashion to bandy the accusation between enemies: thus, during the Crusades, the Saracens said the Christians ate human flesh as well as the unclean flesh of swine; while the Christians on their side maintained that the Saracens ate men, women, and children, and were particularly fond of a sucking Christian babe torn fresh from the breast of its mother. The old travelers' narratives abound in stories of cannibalism, which we may almost invariably pronounce to be false. Few persons would now credit that the Indians and Chinese sold human flesh in the market, or that the Grand Khan of Tartary fattened his astronomers and magicians with the carcasses of condemned criminals; but the |