CARRIAGE AND WAGON INDUSTRY of a horn lantern and a farthing candle, and proceed on his way over bad roads, sometimes getting out to help the coachman lift the coach out of a quagmire or rut, and arriving at New York after a week's travel, wondering at the ease, as well as the expedition, with which our journey was effected." In 1791, there were only 1,905 miles of post-roads in the United States and in these roads were many bottomless sloughs, and corduroy bridges which consisted of logs laid crosswise over swamps sometimes for long distances, but with the improvement of the roads and the advancement of civilization we find the industry of vehicle construction developing and spreading in America. Military roads and post-roads were built by the government across the mountains of Virginia, connecting the East with the valley of Ohio; through the forests of Maine to the town of Houlton on the New Brunswick frontier, and also in other parts of the country. Stage lines were established on these roads and thrived; much capital was invested; the business rapidly grew, and the returns from the investments proved enormous. Factories began to spring up here and there. The great Canestoga wagon, with its broad wheels, and canvas-covered body, and drawn by six or eight horses, came into use in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, for the transportation of freight and passengers. Troy, N. Y., became famous for its coaches and wherever used they were sure of patronage; Salem and Worcester, Mass., loomed up as manufacturing centres, but the most famous was undoubtedly the Concord coach, originally made in Concord, N. H., by the house of Abbot, Downing & Company, who later in 1815, moved to Salem, Mass. The War of 1812 further helped the industry in that it threw us upon our own resources and started the emigrant and pioneer toward the great unknown West. This necessitated the emigrant wagon or prairie-schooner as it was called, and after that the lighter farm wagon. Stylish carriages and fine coaches began to come into demand in all the large cities. Boston, New Haven, Bridgeport, Newark, all had flourishing shops, and New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Wilmington were rapidly coming to the front. A considerable trade with the planters in the West Indies grew up, the vehicles being exchanged for the products of the plantations. These vehicles, which were two wheeled, and had very long shafts, were known as volantes. The wheels were placed in the rear, thus throwing a large portion of the weight on the horse's back, and besides this, the postilion rode the horse, giving him a double load. As the emigration toward the West became greater and greater, the establishment of permanent factories and repair shops became necessary and the volume of business began to assume considerable proportions. One of the first to enter this new field was John Studebaker, who in 1835 settled at Ashland, Ohio, and there opened a small shop, though it remained however for his five sons to lay the foundation of the business at South Bend, Ind., operating under the name of Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company (q.v.), and who are now the largest wagon and carriage manufacturers in the world. It is a far cry from a village blacksmith shop with its solitary forge and one an vil to the marvelously equipped factories now operating, and when one considers the vast output (the Studebakers turn out over 100,000 vehicles per year) he wonders where the markets are and where the purchasers are to be found. In the early part of the 19th century, the business was carried on by what was known as the "dicker" system. Money was seldom used in the transactions; the wood-workers, blacksmiths, etc., taking parts in exchange or as they said, "swapped," and the final settlement was made in the finished carriage. This involved less chance of being in debt, and according to the old operators, was much safer than the cash payments. But the country rapidly outgrew this system, and well organized and well equipped shops took their places and it seems as though we have almost reached the limit in quick and cheap methods of production, but undoubtedly the inventive genius of the American will continue to assert itself along this line and, instead of retrograding, we shall advance and always keep abreast of the times. The greater portion of vehicles now built is made by the thousand and the making of the different parts in large quantities has to a great extent lessened the labor and cost of production; hence the cheapness in the price of vehicles at the present time. Of course there are many different grades of vehicles made in this country and, while in some instances the price is a fair indication of the quality of stock employed in the making, yet the tendency of the times is that the best grade of workmanship and material obtainable shall be put in all styles of vehicles, regardless of price, and the manufacturer who disregards this tendency may sometime regret it. There is no reason why the downward rush of the selling price, which has been made possible only by the decline in the cost of production, should lower the quality or grade of the article produced; nor is this true of the large manufacturer in this country, who, realizing that the average American, having neither the time nor the ability to make a close examination of the construction, and would not if he had, is perfectly willing to pay well for a good article, who, I say, is bound by this trust put in him to give to the public the finest grade of work which the highest skill and care of the best designers and mechanics can produce. The most noteworthy feature in vehicle construction at the beginning of the 20th century is the rapidly increasing use of rubber tires. These tires first came into use about 1890, but were used mainly for trotting sulkies or runabouts and were not adaptable for the majority of pleasure vehicles for some time. The tires were then made solid and universally approved and broader tires were later adopted, especially in wagons to carry heavy loads, owing to the strong move ment for good roads throughout the United States. In 1872 the "Carriage Builders National Association" was founded by the leading manufacturers of the country. Realizing the necessity of having skilled workmen for the trade, a fund was raised to establish a school in New York city, where carriage drafting and construction was to be taught. This was a great success and has contributed largely to the advanced methods now in use in all our modern factories. Some idea of the vast amount of business CARRICKFERGUS-CARRIER done in the United States and the remarkable advancement in the last 20 years in all branches of the industry is given in the following tables: which only 129 acres is embraced in the town proper, the remainder belonging to the territory of the county. The Bay of Carrickfergus CARRIAGE AND WAGON MANUFACTURES, 1890, 1900, 1905. From the foregoing tables it will be noted that there was a rapid growth in number of establishments doing business during the 10 years from 1890 to 1900, but a decline from 1900 to 1905; while at the same time the output in 1905 was far in excess of that of 1900, and during the 15 years from 1890 to 1905 the increase was nearly $40,000,000. The marvelous methods of consolidation and concentration worked out during these years and the introduction of labor-saving machinery are partly responsible for the great increase of output as compared to the number of factories in operation, and the rapid growth in the population has tended to cheapen the labor, hence the decrease in cost of production in comparison to the value of the finished product. It will also be noticed that the increase in the cost of materials used from 1890 to 1900 in comparison to the increase in value is all out of proportion, proving, as has been before stated, that the public require the finest material construction for practically the same purchasing price. The sharp competition among the builders and dealers has also helped to keep down the value of products. The business will, however, if prosperity and wisdom rule, continue to grow as fast as the increased capacity of the purchasing class can consume the increased output; new markets are rapidly opening and there is no reason why the future of the carriage and wagon industry should not prove as bright as has the past.* J. M. STUDEBAKER. Carrickfergus, kår-rik-fer'gus, Ireland, a seaport town in the county of Antrim, 10 miles by rail northeast of Belfast. It is a municipal borough, and also a county of itself, called the county of the town of Carrickfergus. It comprises an area of about 25 square miles, of In the making of this article. "The Evolution of the Vehicle," by Col. Charles Arthur Carlisle, the junior member of the Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company, and the files and data in hand by the "Scientific American," were used as a basis. $118,942,634 138,361,763 155,868,849 is a small indentation on the north side of Belfast Lough. It is memorable in history as the landing-place of King William III., who disembarked on its shore at the quay of the town of Carrickfergus, on 14 June 1690. The castle stands upon a rock projecting into the bay, and is still maintained as a fortress, having a number of guns on the walls and a small garrison. The public buildings besides the Episcopal, Roman Catholic, and other churches, are a townhall, court-house, market-house, etc. Pop. about 9,000. Carrier, Common, See COMMON CARRIER. Carrier, Jean Baptiste, zhon bäp-tēst kärre-a, French Jacobin: b. Yolet, near Aurillac, 1756; d. Paris 16 Dec. 1794. At the beginning of the Revolution he was an obscure attorney, but in 1792 was chosen a member of the convention. He aided in the establishment of the revolutionary tribunal, 10 March 1793, and exhibited the wildest rage for persecution. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., demanded the arrest of the Duke of Orleans, 6 April 1793, and contributed greatly to the outbreak of 31 May. On 8 Oct. 1793, he was sent to Nantes with a commission to suppress the civil war and finally put down the Vendeans. Multitudes, informally and precipitately condemned, were executed daily; but Carrier resolved to destroy the prisoners by numbers at a time and without a trial. He first caused 94 priests to be conveyed to a boat with a perforated bottom, under pretence of transporting them, but in reality with a view of having them drowned by night. This artifice was repeated a number of times, and the victims were of every age and of both sexes. These wholesale murders by drowning were called noyades. It has been estimated that 15,000 individuals perished in this manner. The banks of the Loire were strewed with the dead, and the water was so polluted that drinking it was prohibited. Out of terror people refrained for a time from drawing public attention to these CARRIERA CARROLL atrocities, but at last the truth began to hecome known, and Carrier was recalled. Shortly after the fall of Robespierre he was arrested and brought before the revolutionary tribunal, which condemned him to death, and he was guillotined accordingly. Carriera, Rosalba, Italian painter: b. Venice 1675; d. 1757. She is chiefly known by her portraits in crayon. In 1705 she became a member of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome, and in 1720 of the Academy of Bologna. She visited Paris in 1720 and painted portraits of King Louis XV. and members of the court. She was elected a member of the French Academy and in 1721 returned to Venice. She was a great worker and toward the end of her life became blind from overwork. 2 March 1824. He graduated at Yale in 1845; taught at Tarrytown, N. Y., 1846 and at Yala Law School 647; began the practice of law in Columbus, Ohio, in 1848, and took an active part in the anti-slavery movement. In the convention which net in 1854 to organize the Republican party, Carrington was a member of the committee appointed to correspond with persons in the different States with a view of making the movement national. In 1857 he was Adjutant-General on the staff of Gov. Chase and organized the State militia in preparation for war. In 1861 he was appointed colonel of the 18th United States infantry, served through the Civil War, and afterward was in service on the plains; was wounded in war with Sioux Indians and retired in 1870; he became professor of military science and tactics in Wabash College, Ind., a position which he held till 1873. He has written: 'Russia as a Nation'; American Classics'; Ad-sa-ra-ka, Land of Massacre'; Battles of the American Revolution'; 'Washington the Soldier,' and other works. Carrière, Moritz, German author: b. Griedel, Hesse, 5 March 1817; d. Munich 19 Jan. 1895. He studied philosophy at Giessen, Göttingen, Berlin, and in Italy. In 1849 he became professor of philosophy at Giessen and after 1853 held that position at Munich. He was a defender of Christianity, opposed Ultra- Carrington, Paul, American statesman: b. montanism, and was of the liberal school. He Charlotte County, Va., 24 Feb. 1733; d. 22 June also took high rank as an art critic. Among his 1818. He was graduated at the College of Wilpublished works are: 'Der Kölner Dom als liam and Mary. During the Revolution he was freie deutsche Kirche (1843); Abälard und a member of various conventions and of the Heloise (1844); Die Religion in ihrem Beg- Committee of Safety; opposed the Stamp-Act riff) (1841); Die philosophische Weltans- resolutions of Patrick Henry; became a memchauung der Reformationszeit' (1847); 'Das Charakterbild Cromwells' (1851); Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Kulturentwickelung und die Ideale der Menschheit (1863-71); 'Geschmack und Gewissen' (1882). ber of the court of appeals, and in the Virginia convention voted for the adoption of the Federal Constitution. Carrington, Richard, English astronomer: b. Chelsea, 26 May 1826; d. November 1875. Carrier-Belleuse, Albert Ernest, äl-bar Carrington entered Trinity College, Cambridge, ėr-nā kä-rē-ā-běl-lerz, French sculptor: b. in 1844, to prepare for the Church, but his Anizy-le-Château 12 June 1824; d. Paris 3 June 1887. He was a pupil of David d'Angers, and while studying was compelled to earn his living by making models for the manufacturers of bronzes. Toward the close of his life he was director of the porcelain works at Sèvres. His works include marble sculptures and terra-cotta busts; among them are Angelica'; Madonna and Child' (in the Church of St. Vincent de Paul in Paris); 'Sleeping Hebe'; 'Forsaken Psyche; and a number of busts of remarkable truthfulness to life. Carrier-pigeon. See HOMING PIGEON. Carrier Shell, or Mason Shell, a gastropod mollusk of the genus Phorus, which covers its shell with grains of sand, shell, coral, etc. These bits are fastened by an exudation from the mantle, and are apparently protective in their purpose. Carrières, Louis de, French theologian of the Roman Catholic Church: b. Cluvilé 1662; d. Paris 11 June 1717. In 1689 joined the Congregation of the Oratory and became well known as a theologian. At the request of Bousset he published a Commentaire Littéral' (24 vols. 1701-16), reprinted Paris 1872. scientific tendencies being awakened by the lectures of Prof. Challis he turned his attention to astronomy. He held the post of observer at the University of Durham from 1849 to 1852. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (7 June 1860). His work 'Observations on the Spots on the Sun' (1863) furnished data that materially affected the study of solar physics. Carrion-crow, any of several large carrionThe only true carrion-crow eating birds. (Corvus corone) is found in England. It is larger than a crow, of black plumage, and with feathered neck. It is seldom seen in flocks, and lives upon carrion, small mammals, eggs, and birds. In the southern United States the name is locally given to the black vulture (Catharista atrata), a bird closely related to the turkey-buzzard (q.v.), but smaller, and resembling it in habits and public service as a scavenger. Its bluish and spotted eggs number from one to three and are placed in a nest built under logs and bushes. Carrion-flowers, certain species of the genus Stapelia (natural order Asclepiadacea), so called because of their putrid odor. In the United States the name is also given to the Smilax herbacca, a liliaceous plant. Car'rington, Edward, American soldier: b. Charlotte County, Va., 11 Feb. 1749; d. 28 Carroll, Charles, "of Carrollton," AmeriOct. 1810. He was lieutenant-colonel of Gen. can patriot: b. Annapolis, Md., 20 Sept. 1737; Harrison's artillery regiment, quartermaster- d. Baltimore, 14 Nov. 1832. He attended sevgeneral under Gen. Greene, a delegate to the eral schools abroad; studied law in Paris and Continental Congress, and foreman of the jury London, where he became a member of the in Aaron Burr's trial for treason. Carrington, Henry Beebee, American lawyer, soldier and historian: b. Wallingford, Conn., Inner Temple; returned to his native country in 1764; was elected to the Continental Congress in 1775, and with the other members CARROLL-CARROUSEL signed the Declaration of Independence, on 2 August of the following year. To make certain his identity, he added "of Carrollton" to his signature, thus distinguishing himself from another by using the name of his family mansion. After many more years of important public service to the State of Maryland and to the new republic, in 1804 he withdrew to private life at Carrollton, which was his patrimonial estate, and where as his life advanced he became an object of universal veneration. He survived by six years all the other signers of the Declaration. name is derived from its use in the Carron Foundry, Scotland. Carronade', an iron gun introduced in 1779 by the director of the Carron Foundry, in Scotland, from which it took its name, said to have been invented in 1752 by Gen. Melville, and first used in the American Revolutionary War. They were of large calibre, and lighter than common cannon; but they admitted of only a small charge of powder and had a very confined range. See ORDNANCE. Carrot, a biennial plant (Daucus carota) of the natural order Umbelliferæ. It is a native of Carroll, Henry King, American clergy- Europe, introduced into America, and is known man and editor: b. Dennisville, N. J., 15 Nov. as a troublesome weed upon poor land espe1848. He was on the staff of Hearth and cially in the eastern United States. It is more Home (Methodist), and from 1876 to 1898 favorably known by its cultivated varieties was religious and political editor of the Inde- which are said to have been derived originally pendent. He has written 'The Religious from Holland prior to the 16th century, since Forces of the United States'; and many re- when it has become deservedly popular in all views, reports, and miscellaneous papers. He temperate climates. Certain large-rooted variesupervised the compilation of religious statis- ties are raised for stock feeding. The most tics for the 11th census, and in 1898 was popular culinary varieties are small, rapidly appointed to prepare a report on the internal growing plants of diversely formed roots. conditions of Porto Rico. In 1900 he became Since they are most used as a flavoring in a secretary of the Methodist Episcopal Church soups, stews, and other dishes which have not Missionary Society. become specially popular in America, they are less cultivated here than in Europe, where these dishes are commonly made. The plants succeed best in a warm, friable, rich soil, well supplied with moisture, free from stones, weeds, etc., and in the best physical condition. The seed may be sown in drills one half foot apart as soon as the ground has become warm, since they are slow to germinate and since the seedearly maturing variety are usually planted with lings are very tiny. A few radish seeds of an them to break the soil and indicate the positions of the rows, so that cultivation may be commenced early. The radishes are pulled when they reach edible size and the carrots Car'roll, Howard, American journalist: b. Albany, N. Y., 1854. He began newspaper work in New York as reporter for the Times, of which he subsequently became special Washington correspondent. He has since held several responsible business positions and is the author of A Mississippi Incident'; 'Twelve Americans: Their Lives and Times.' Car'roll, John, American prelate: b. Upper Marlborough, Md., 8 Jan. 1735; d. Georgetown, D. C., 3 Dec. 1815. He was a cousin of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States. At the age of 13 he was sent to Belgium to be educated. He was professor (1759-71) at St. Omer's and Liège, then, becoming a Jesuit, he was made prefect of the Jesuit College at Bruges. On the suppression of the Jesuits in 1774, he returned to the United States. In 1784, at the suggestion of Franklin, he was appointed superior of the Roman Catholic clergy in the United States; was made bishop in 1789; and in 1808 was created archbishop of the archdiocese of Baltimore. Georgetown College was founded by Bishop Carroll in 1791. Carroll, John Joseph, American Roman Catholic clergyman: b. Enniscrone County, Sligo, Ireland, 24 June 1856. He came to the United States in infancy, was educated in St. Michael's College, Toronto, Ontario, and at St. Joseph's Theological Seminary in Troy, N. Y. He became assistant priest in the Cathedral of the Holy Name, Chicago, in 1880, and subsequently rector of St. Thomas' Church there. He is a Galic scholar of prominence and has written Notes and Observations on the Aryan Race and Tongue) (1894); Prehistoric Occupation of Ireland by the Gælic Aryans.' Carroll, Lewis. LUTWIDGE. See DODGSON, CHARLES Carron Oil, a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil and lime water, much used as a dressing for burns. It has no particular advantages over other simpler and neater dressings, notably vaseline, or oxide of zinc ointment. Its given clean cultivation, the plants being thinned keted. The larger growing kinds are planted in are stored in pits or root cellars. Few diseases The average percentage composition of carrots is: Water 88.6; nitrogen-free extract, 7.6; carbohydrate, 1.3; protein, 1.1; fat, a trace; ash, about 1 per cent. They resemble other root and tuber vegetables in their succulence and nutritive value. They are greatly relished by stock, especially horses, but are usually replaced in American rations by cheaper foods. Car'rotin. See CAROTIN. Carrousel, kä-roo-sěl', formerly an exhibition of various knightly exercises, as riding at the ring, throwing the spear, etc., which were celebrated at the courts of princes on festival occasions with great pomp and splendor. They are very ancient, but are first mentioned in history in 842, on occasion of the meeting held by Charles the Bold and Louis the German. They were superseded by tournaments, but when these had fallen were again revived. introduction or revival in France took place after tournaments had fallen out of fashion in consequence of the accident which ended in the death of Henry II. Similar fêtes had already Their |