(the example is taken from the approbation of a book by an archbishop of Mechlin or Malines in Belgium):

"Engelbert, by the divine mercy, cardinalpriest of the holy Roman Church, of the title of Saint Bartholomew in the Island, archbishop of Mechlin, primate of Belgium," etc.

Carding, the process which wool, cotton, flax, etc., are made to undergo previous to spinning, to lay the fibres all in one direction, and remove all foreign substances. The card formerly consisted of a number of iron teeth arranged in a piece of leather of various lengths, and the material was combed by hand. For many years this work has been done by machinery, the cards being fine, long teeth fixed on leather strips called card-clothing, which are arranged on a series of cylinders so placed that the material is carried from one to another, until removed by still another and much smaller cylinder called the doffer, from which it is stripped by a moving comb, and then by a series of rolls is delivered in the form of a ribbon into a can, when it is ready for the drawing-frame, on which it is prepared for spinning.

Car'dioid, a heart-shaped curve. It is produced by drawing a great number of chords from a single point of the circumference of a circle, prolonging each beyond the further crossing of the circumference to a distance equal to the diameter of the circle, and joining the free ends by a smooth curve. It is a special case of the limaçon, in which the extension of the chords is of any uniform length. The limaçon was invented by Pascal.

Carditis, kär-di'tīs, an inflammation of the heart. The word is not now used, since more definite terms are accessible to designate particular types of inflammation. Thus myocarditis is an inflammation of the heart muscle, endocarditis, of the lining membrane, the endocardium; pericarditis, of the external membrane, the pericardium.

Cardona, kär-dō'nä, Spain, a town in the province of Barcelona, on the right bank of the Cardoner, 50 miles north-northwest of Barcelona. It has a castle. In its vicinity is a hill of rock salt 500 feet high, which affords inexhaustible supplies of salt.

Cardoon', a garden vegetable (Cynara cardunculus), of the natural order Composite. It so closely resembles the artichoke (Cynara scolymus) that some botanists consider the two species merely as horticultural varieties. The plant, which is a native of southern Europe, is a thistle-like, tender perennial which is cultivated as an annual. Seed is usually sown in spring in a hotbed; the young plants are transplanted to the rich soil of the garden about four feet apart each way, and kept cleanly cultivated until the leaves are nearly full grown, when the plant is tied up, covered with straw and earth, to blanch for two or more weeks. The thick leaf-stalks and the mid-ribs are the parts desired. In America the plant is not very popular except with the foreign population.

Cards, pieces of cardboard, oblong in shape, bearing certain figures and spots; specifically, playing-cards used in various games of chance and skill. Playing-cards are probably an invention of the East, and some assert that

the Arabs or Saracens learned the use of cards from the gypsies and spread them in Europe. The course that card-playing took in its diffusion through Europe shows that it must have come from the East, for it was found in the eastern and southern countries before it was in the western. The historical traces of the use of cards are found earliest in Italy, then in Germany, France, and Spain. The first cards were painted, and the Italian cards of 1299 are found to have been so. The art of printing cards was discovered by the Germans between 1350 and 1360. The Germans have, moreover, made many changes in cards, both in the figures and the names. The lanzknechtsspiel, which is regarded as the first German game with cards, is a German invention. Of this game we find an imitation in France, in 1392, under the name of lansquenet, which continued to be played there till the time of Molière and Regnard, and perhaps still longer. The first certain trace of card-playing in France occurs in the year 1361, and Charles VI. is said to have amused himself with it during his sickness at the end of the 14th century. The modern figures are said to have been invented in France between 1430 and 1461. It has been said that cards were known in Spain as early as 1332; but what is certain is that card-playing must have become prevalent in the course of the century, seeing it was prohibited by the king of Castile, John I., in 1387. Mr. De la Rue, the most extensive manufacturer of cards in England, obtained in 1832 a patent for various improvements in manufacture. The figures on cards had been generally produced by the outlines first being printed from copper plates, and the colors then filled in by stencilling. Mr. De la Rue's process was to print them from colored types or blocks exactly in the same way as calico-printing, but all the colors being in oil.

As early as the 15th century an active trade in cards sprung up in German, and was chiefly carried on at Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Ulm, the demand from France, England, Italy, Spain, and other countries producing great prosperity among the manufacturers. In England the manufacture of cards flourished especially under Elizabeth. But no sooner had cards come to be generally used in Europe, than they were prohibited by several governments, partly from moral considerations, the first games being games of chance; partly from considerations of political economy, as in England, where the importation of foreign cards was considered injurious to the prosperity of home manufacturers. The prohibition, however, only tended to increase the taste for cards. In England, under Richard III. and Henry VII., card-playing grew in favor. The latter monarch was very fond of the game, and his daughter Margaret was found playing cards by James IV. of Scotland, when he came to woo her. The popularity which cards gradually obtained in England may be inferred from the fact that political pamphlets under the name of "Bloody Games of Cards," and kindred titles, appeared at the commencement of the civil war against Charles I. One of the most striking publications of this kind was one in 1660 on the royal game of ombre. Pepys, in his 'Diary,' under the date of 17 Feb. 1667, states that on_Sabbath evenings he found "the Queene, the Duchesse of York,

and another or two, at cards, with the rooms full of ladies and great men."

The modern pack of cards, used in most of the familiar games, is 52 in number, containing four suits; clubs and spades (black), and hearts and diamonds (red). Thirteen cards compose a suit, consisting of king, queen, knave or jack, and ten pip-cards ranging in number of spots from one (ace) to ten. The figures of the four suits are supposed to have been originally intended for symbolical representations of the four great classes of men, and the names attached to these figures in England arose from a misapprehension of the names originally assigned to them. Thus, by the hearts are meant the gens de choeur (coeur), the choir-men or ecclesiastics, and hence these are called copas, or chalices, by the Spaniards; whose word espada, sword, indicating the nobility and warriors of the state, has been corrupted into the English spade. The clubs were originally trefles (trefoil leaves), and denoted the peasantry; while the citizens and merchants were marked by the diamonds (carreaux, square tiles). The word knave (German, knab, boy), was used, of course, in its older sense of servant, or attendant on the knights. The natural rank of the cards in each suit is, king highest, and so on down to ace lowest; but in many games this rank is varied, as in whist, where the ace is put highest of all, above the king; in écarté, where it is put between the knave and the ten; and in bézique, where it is made the highest, but where the ten is put between it and the king; in quadrille, the rank of some of the cards is variable in every hand. Sometimes the pack of cards is reduced to 32, by excluding the six, five, four, three, and two of each suit; it is then called a "piquet pack." An immense variety of games may be placed with cards, some involving chance only, others combining chance and skill, the best furnishing intellectual amusement. There are round games, in which any number of persons may join, as poker, hearts, loo, etc.; games for four persons, as whist, in its different forms, and euchre; for two, as piquet, écarté, bézique, cribbage, and penuchle, closely resembling bézique, and at present much played in the United States; and there is one game, solitaire, played in many ways, at which a single person often finds both restful diversion and pleasant occupation for the mind.

Carducci, or Carducho, Bartolommeo, bär-to-lōm-ma'ō kär-doo'che or kär-doo'chō, Italian artist: b. Florence, 1560; d. Madrid, 1608. He studied in Rome as a pupil of Zuochero, and later went to Spain, where he was a favorite of Philip III. Among his best works are 'Descent from the Cross,' and the 'Adoration of the Magi.'

Carducci, kär-dö'chi, Giosuè, Italian poet and philologist: b. Valdicastello, Tuscany, 27 July 1836; d. Bologna 15 Feb. 1907. He became professor of Italian literature in the University of Bologna in 1861. He had previously written essays on the history of literature; and a small volume of lyrics, Rimes) (1857). But his poetical genius was better shown in Inno a Satana' (1863); and Odi Barbare'; Nuove odi Barbare; and Terze odi Barbare. His employment of original poetic forms in the (Odi Barbare' series aroused much literary discussion. Carducci also published 'Studii

leterarii' (1875); 'Bozetti critici e discorsi letterarii) (1875). In November 1906 he received the Nobel prize for literature.

Carducci, or Carducho, Vincenzo, vinchent'sō, Italian artist: b. Florence, 1568; d. Madrid, Spain, about 1638. He was a brother of the preceding and was patronized by both Philip III. and Philip IV. of Spain, where his most important works are to be found. He was the author of 'Dialogos de las excelencias de las pintura (1633).

longing to the natural order Composite, reCarduus, kär'dū-ŭs, a genus of plants besembling the thistles, common along the Mediterranean. They are almost all troublesome weeds, though some of them are said to possess medical properties which make them useful in fevers. Among the more common of them are the arvensis (corn-thistle, way-thistle, or creeping-thistle), which has strong fleshy roots extending underground, and difficult of extirpation; and C. lanceolatus (spear-thistle), which, both from its size and rough feeding, is a great robber of the soil, but from being only a biennial is more easily managed.

Card'well, John Henry, English clergyman: b. Sheffield, England, 20 June 1842. He was educated at Caius College, Cambridge, was ordained in the Established Church 1865, and was incumbent of St. Andrew's, Fulham, 1868-91. Since 1891 he has been rector of St. Anne's, Soho, London, and has been prominent in municipal politics and civic reforms. He has published The Story of a Charity School' ; Two Centuries of Soho'; 'Men and Women of Soho, Famous and Infamous.'

Care Sunday, sometimes taken to be the Sunday immediately preceding Good Friday; but generally used to signify the fifth Sunday in Lent. Same as Passion Sunday.

Careen'ing, the process of heaving a vessel down on one side by applying a strong purchase to the masts, so that the bottom may be of fire any growth which adheres to it, or any cleansed by breaming, that is removing by means other necessary work effected. A half careen may take place when it is not possible to come at the bottom of the whole ship. Very few ships are now careened, more especially since the introduction of copper sheathing.

Carême, Marie Antoine, mä-rē äǹ-twän kä ram, French cook: b. Paris, 8 June 1784; d: there, 12 Jan. 1833. He wrote 'Le pâtissier pittoresque) (2d ed. 1842); Le mâitre d'hotel française (2d ed. 1842); 'Le pâtissier royal parisien) (1828); L'art de la Cuisine française aux XIX. siécle' (1833).

Caret, kärā', a turtle. See HAWKSBILL.

Carew, ka-roo', Richard, English antiquarian and poet: b. East Antony, Cornwall, 17 July 1555; d. there, 6 Nov. 1620. He was a member of the House of Commons, high sheriff of Cornwall in 1586, and the author of a much valued 'Survey of Cornwall' (1602), and an English translation of a portion of Tasso's 'Jerusalem Delivered.'

Carew, Thomas, English poet; b. 1598; d. 1639. He was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Cultivating polite literature in the midst of a life of affluence and gaiety, he was the subject of much eulogy by Ben Jonson,

Davenant, and other writers of the period. In him was exhibited the not unusual transformation of the courtly and libertine fine gentleman into the repentant devotee. Carew is coupled with Waller as one of the improvers of English versification. The first collection of his poems was printed in 1640, and the last in 1824. His elegant masque of Coelum Britannicum was printed both in the early edition and separately in 1651, and the whole were included in Chalmers' British Poets.' Carew was much studied by Pope, and Dr. Percy also assisted to restore him to a portion of the favor with which he has come to be regarded. Specimens both of the sublime and the pathetic may be found in his works; the former in his admirable masque, and the latter in his epitaph on Lady Mary Villiers.

Carex, kār'ěks, a genus of plants, belonging to the natural order Cyperaceae, or sedges, and containing numerous species, which are found in all parts of the world where vegetation can exist, on the driest upland as well as the wettest marsh. The plants are perennial, often creeping, with sharp-keeled leaves and solid triangular stems. The flowers are without perianth and unisexual, being grouped in spikelets. The male flowers have usually three stamens, the female having a single style with three stigmas. The number of known species is above 2,500, and of these the United States has nearly 300. Hardly any of them have any agricultural value, but C. arenaria, the sand-ṣedge, is of use in binding the sand on many sea-shores. In parts of the United States a poor quality of hay is made from some of the sedges. C. japonica variegata is an elegant variety cultivated by florists.

Ca'rey, Henry, English composer and poet: b. London, 1696; d. there, 1743. He is supposed to have been a natural son of George Saville, Marquis of Halifax. His first instructor in music was a German, named Linnert, but he was afterward more thoroughly trained under Roseingrave and Geminiani. He was inexhaustible in the invention of new, pleasing, and often deeply pathetic melodies, to which he not unfrequently furnished the words. His 'Sally in Our Alley is still a well-known song. He has also been said to be the author of God Save the King, but this appears to be doubtful. He supported himself by public and private teaching, but his whole life was a continued struggle with poverty, and it has been said that at last, in a fit of despair, he committed suicide (1743). His collected songs were published in 1740. Among other works are: Teraminta) (1732) and other operas; 'Chrononhotonthologos, "the most tragical tragedy ever yet tragedized" (1734), a burlesque; The Wonder, or An Honest Yorkshireman' (1735); and The Dragon of Wantley' (1737). His dramatic works were published together in 1743.

Carey, Henry Charles, American political economist: b. Philadelphia, 15 Dec. 1793; d. there, 13 Oct. 1879. He was the eldest son of Mathew Carey, and in 1814 became partner in his father's bookselling and publishing firm, where he continued until 1835. In that year he published an essay on The Rate of Wages,' which he afterward expanded into 'The Principles of Political Economy' (1837-40). His other important works are: The Credit Sys

tem in France, Great Britain, and the United States) (1838); The Past, the Present, and the Future (1848); The Principles of Social Science) (1858-9); 'Letters on Political Economy' (1860 and 1865); The Unity of Law) (1872). Originally a free-trader, he became an advocate of protection on the ground of temporary expediency; held that the growth of population was self-regulating; and was opposed to the theories of Ricardo and others on the law of diminished returns from the soil and on rent. He was also opposed to any arrangement on the subject of international copyright. Some of his works have been translated into other languages, and his writings have had considerable influence on economical speculation.

Carey, James F., American socialist leader: b. Haverhill, Mass., 19 Aug. 1867. He received a common school education and learned the shoemaking trade. In 1895 he was chairman of a convention at Boston, which amalgamated three national organizations of shoemakers into one union. In 1894 he was one of the leaders in the agitation of the unemployed on Boston Common, and the governor appointed him a commissioner of the unemployed, but he was not confirmed. He was later elected president of the Haverhill common council. In 1898, 1899, and 1900 he was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, twice defeating a combination of the Democratic and Republican parties. He was the first Socialist ever elected to political office in New England.

Carey, Mathew, Irish writer and bookseller: b. Dublin, 28 Jan. 1760; d. Philadelphia. 16 Sept. 1839. After a varied experience, including imprisonment for offending publications, he came to the United States in 1784, and in Philadelphia began to publish the Pennsylvania Herald. A few years later he became a bookseller, and an extensive publisher. best known of his political writings was his 'Olive Branch' (1814). It was an effort to promote harmony among political parties during the War of 1812. It passed through 10 editions. In 1819 he published his Irish Vindications,' and in 1822, Essays on Political Economy.'

The

Ca'rey, Rosa Nouchette, English novelist: b. London. She began writing novels in 1868, and her fictions, in which the literary element is not a very strong feature, have been very popular with the average, uncritical reader who demands only to be entertained and cares little or nothing for literary style. They include (Wee Wifie' (1869); Nellie's Memories' (1868); Barbara Heathcote's Trial (1871); Robert Ord's Atonement' (1873); Wooed and Married' (1875); 'Heriot's Choice' (1879); Queenie's Whim' (1881); Mary St. John (1882); Not Like Other Girls (1884); For Lilias (1885); Uncle Max' (1887); 'Only the Governess' (1888); 'Basil Lyndhurst' (1889); Lover or Friend' (1890); Sir Godfrey's Grand-daughters' (1892); Men Must Work) (1892); The Old, Old Story' (1894); Mrs. Romney) (1894); The Mistress of Brae Farm) (1896); Other People's Lives' (1897); Mollie's Prince' (1898); 'Twelve Notable Good Women'; 'My Lady Frivol' (1899); 'Rue with a Difference' Trivial 'Life's of Round (1900); Herb Grace' (1901); The Highway of Fate' (1902).

Carey, William, English Orientalist and missionary: b. Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, 17 Aug. 1761; d. Serampore, India, 9 June 1834. He was early apprenticed to a shoemaker, and continued to work at his trade till he was 24. With what assistance he could procure he acquired Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and studied theology. In 1786 he became pastor of a Baptist congregation at Moulton, and in 1787 was appointed to a similar situation in Leicester. In 1793 he sailed for the East Indies as a Baptist missionary, but became overseer of an indigo factory. He studied languages and natural history, and collected a rich store of Oriental knowledge. In 1800, in conjunction with Marshman, Ward, and others, he founded the missionary college at Serampore; the year following he became professor of Sanskrit, Bengali, and Mahratta at the newly erected Fort William College, Calcutta. In Serampore he had a printing-press for more than 40 different Indian languages, and issued various translations of the Scriptures. His first work was a Mahratta Grammar. It was followed by other works, including a Bengali 'Lexicon,' in which he was assisted by Felix Carey, his son. Under his 6, and the New Testament into 21 languages or dialects of Hindustan; and considerable progress was made with the translation of the whole Scriptures into Chinese. He also edited Shroeder's Lexicon of the Thibetan language, and Roxburgh's Flora Indica,' in which a genus of plants which he discovered is named after him, Careya. He established an agricultural society at Calcutta, and a botanical garden, at his own expense, at Serampore. See his 'Life' by Dr. G. Smith (1885).

direction the whole Bible was translated into

Cargill, kär'gil, Donald, Scotch covenanting preacher: b. Rattray, Perthshire, about 1619; d. Edinburgh, 27 July 1681. He was educated at Aberdeen and St. Andrews, and became minister of the Barony Church in Glasgow in 1655. At the Restoration he refused to accept collation from the archbishop, and was exiled beyond the Tay. In 1679 he took part in the battle of Bothwell Bridge, where he was wounded, but succeeded in escaping to Holland. In 1680 he published, along with Richard Cameron, the 'Sanquhar Declaration.' In September of the same year he formally excommunicated King Charles II., Duke of York, and other great personages. After avoiding pursuit for several months, in May 1681, he was captured, and at Edinburgh tried and sentenced, and 27 July was beheaded.

Car'hart, Henry Smith, American scientist: b. Coeymans, N. Y., 27 March 1844. He was graduated at Wesleyan University in 1869, 'and since then has taught physics and chemistry. Since 1886 he has been professor of physics at the University of Michigan. He has written Primary Batteries); University Physics'; 'Electrical Measurements'; and other

books.

bounded on the north by Lydia or Mæonia, from which it was separated by the Mæander; on the east by Phrygia, on the southeast by Lycia, and on the south and west by the Mediterranean. Some confusion, however, exists in regard to its boundaries. Part of it was settled by Greek colonies of Ionians and Dorians, who dispossessed the original inhabitants. It was included in the dominions of Croesus, king of Lydia, and on his overthrow by Cyrus was transferred to the Persian monarchy, under whose protection a dynasty of Carian princes was established. Halicarnassus was the residence of these sovereigns, among whom were the two celebrated queens, the first and second Artemisia. The progress of the Roman conquests ultimately extinguished the independence of Caria, and about 129 B.C. it was incorporated in the Roman province of Asia.

in the state of Bermudez, situated to the east Cariaco, kä-rē-ä’kō, Venezuela, a seaport of the Gulf of Cariaco, near the mouth of a river of the same name, adjoining a large plain, covered with plantations. Its trade is chiefly miles long, from 5 to 10 broad, from 80 to 100 in cotton and sugar. The Gulf of Cariaco is 38 fathoms deep, surrounded by lofty mountains.

Pop. 7,000.

Cariacou, kăr'i ǎ koo, the name given to American deer of the genus Cariacus, found in all parts of North America up to lat. 43° N. It is smaller than the common stag, and its color varies with the seasons from reddishbrown to slaty-blue.

tata), a native of Brazil and Paraguay, where Cariama, sä-rē-ä'ma, a bird (Cariama cris

1 its loud scream is a familiar sound on the campos, and where it is domesticated and trained to guard fowls. With an allied Argentine bird (Chunga burmeisteri) it constitutes a family (Cariamida) of great zoological interest, combining as it does characters of the bustards, caracara eagles, and cranes, with each of which it has been at times associated.

Carib, kǎr'ib, a native American race which attained its highest development in the West Indies. Originating in the valley of the Orinoco, this race spread along the coasts, northward and southward, to a great distance, and especially from island to island of the Lesser and Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. At the time of the discovery of America its language was spoken, with dialectic variations, from the coast of Florida to lower Brazil,wherever large canoes could carry the swarming, warlike tribes. The Caribs were the Vivives in "Caribbean Sea, "Caribbee" Islands. kings of South America. The race name surwell represented at various points in South the word "cannibal," etc.; the race itself is still America. In the West Indies, however, the large native population disappeared rapidly after the Spanish conquest, Caribs and other tribes of the same stock (Arawaks, Lucayos, Boriqueños, etc.) either succumbing under the new conditions or losing their distinctive characteristics by blending with Europeans and Africans. Surviving groups of West Indian Caribs may be studied to-day in the island of Dominica. A few remained in Martinique and St. Vincent up to the time of the volcanic eruptions in 1902. Great Britain deported 5,000

Caribs from St. Vincent to the island of Ruatan in the Gulf of Honduras in 1796; thence they migrated to the Central American coast, where their numerous descendants have become a not inconsiderable element in the population of the mainland. In the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1902, Vol. LI.), Mr. J. Walter Fewkes of the Bureau of American Ethnology calls attention to the different characteristics which the Caribs displayed in different circumstances and localities. Thus the natives in the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, and Porto Rico were mild, agricultural people who had lost in vigor, while gaining a rudimentary knowledge of the arts of peace, by their sedentary life. On the other hand, constant incursions from the home of the race (the Orinoco region in Venezuela) kept alive the savage customs and ferocious spirit of the Caribs of the Lesser Antilles. Such incursions took place even after the date of the Spanish settlements. The houses of the more peaceful Carib communities did not differ greatly from those of the peasantry in the same regions at the present time. In lieu of clothing, Carib men and girls covered their bodies, as well as their faces, with paint, to protect them from the bites of insects and the heat of the sun. A woven cloth of palm fibre, called nagua,-a breech-cloth with long ends,- was worn by the chiefs and the married women. For purposes of decoration, and to distinguish members of one family or community from those of another, designs of animals and plants were painted on the body. Their social organization closely resembled that of the North American Indians, the unit of organization being the clan, ruled by a cacique (chief). Combinations were sometimes formed by a number of caciques for mutual defense, and extensive territories were subjected to the control of the more ambitious leaders. Among the insignia of the cacique's rank were the gold disk called guarim, worn on his breast, and a stone amulet tied to his forehead. His numerous wives were practically slaves. Ex officio, he was a member of the priesthood. Columbus at first received the impression that the Caribs lacked spiritual insight; longer sojourn among them, however, convinced him that they worshipped many supernatural beings whom they represented by idols, called zemis; they had temples for this purpose, in which rude idols were set up to be consulted as oracles by the priests. It is probable that belief in a future life, although not universally held, as some authorities assert, was generally taught by the priests; and it is quite certain that the latter possessed great influence, being physicians to the people as well as ministers to the zemis.

Like other savage races of the region from which they came, the Caribs were anthropophagi; yet the evil prominence given to them through the coining of the word cannibal (a Latinized form of Carib) is not wholly merited. The discoverers, finding a great number of human skulls in the Carib houses, jumped to the conclusion that each skull was the trophy of some revolting feast. In point of fact, the Caribs, being ancestor-worshippers, preserved these relics in honor of defunct members of their family.

MARRION WILCOX, Authority on Latin-America.

VOL. 430

Caribbean (kăr-i-be'an) Sea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean occupying a basin 750,000 square miles in area, bounded by South and Central America, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles. Its perimeter is wholly mountainous. Mountain folds (continued in submarine ridges from the Greater Antilles to Honduras) mark its limits on the north and south; but the volcanic chain of the Lesser Antilles rises on the east, and the volcanoes of Central America in the remote past formed a wall separating it from the Pacific on the west. Separating it from the Atlantic are steep submarine ridges, of which the Lesser Antilles are the summits. A portion of the broad equatorial stream, which flows from east to west, from the coast of Africa to that of Brazil, enters the Caribbean between the islands at the southern end of the Antillean chain: the waters of this sea, therefore, move from east to west and northwest, and seek an exit through the Yucatan Channel. But the latter is too small to allow an outflow equal to the inflow into the Caribbean; so that, after the trades have forced the equatorial water into the Caribbean basin, it must remain there a considerable length of time, thus becoming superheated, before it passes into the Gulf of Mexico, where, owing to similar differences between the rate of inflow and outflow, the water becomes still more superheated before passing through the Florida Straits as the Gulf Stream. The main westerly current in the Caribbean, after passing through the Banks Strait, between the Mosquito Reef and Jamaica, is joined by the current of the Windward Channel. The trade-winds, blowing with a steady velocity across the Caribbean region, from east to west, make the surface of this sea much rougher than that of the Gulf of Mexico; they mitigate the tropical heat at all points where their influence is felt; and the moisture they bring from the Atlantic is precipitated in the form of abundant rains against the eastern slopes of the mountains, both on the islands and the mainland. Hence the distinction between "windward" and "leeward" regions, insisted upon especially in the West Indies. The Gulf of Mexico, sheltered behind the Antilles and Yucatan, is practically a "leeward" expanse; but the summer climate of Texas and the great plains is somewhat modified by Caribbean trade-winds.

Recent studies of the Caribbean basin have disclosed its interesting submarine topography "a configuration which, if it could be seen, would be as picturesque in relief as the Alps or Himalayas. Nowhere can such contrasts of relief be found within short distances. Some deeps vie in profundity with the altitudes of the near-by Andes. Some of the depressions, like the Bartlett Deep, are narrow troughs, only a few miles in width, but hundreds of miles in length, three miles in depth, and bordered by steep precipices. There are long ridges beneath the waters, which, if elevated, would stand up like islands of to-day. Again, vast areas are underlain by shallow banks .. often approaching the surface of the water, like that extending from Jamaica to Honduras. . The greater islands and the mainlands are bordered in places by submerged shelves." (From Cuba and Porto Rico' see authorities below.) All the islands are, then, to be regarded, from a physiographic point of view, as the "tops of a varied configura

.