River in British Guiana, the Kaieteur Fall, 740 feet high, and about 370 broad, is a splendid spectacle, and just below it is a second fall of 88 feet.

The most remarkable waterfall of Africa is one with which Dr. Livingstone's missionary travels first made us acquainted. This is a cataract on the Zambesi, called by the natives Mosioatunya ("smoke sounds here"), named by him Victoria Falls. The stream, about 1,860 yards broad, flowing over a bed of basaltic rock, is suddenly precipitated into a tremendous fissure, extending across the bed of the river from the right to the left bank, to the depth of about 370 feet. The breadth of this fissure or crack is only from 80 to 90 yards, and the pent-up waters, from which immense columns of vapor are continually ascending, are then hurried through a prolongation of the chasm to the left

with furious violence. The so-called Cataracts of the Nile are not, properly speaking, cataracts. A more correct designation for them would be "rapids." The Stanley Falls on the Congo comprise seven cataracts. On the Tugela River in Natal there are the Tugela Falls. On the Umgeni River, in the same country, are the falls of the Great Umgeni (364 feet) and the Kar Kloof Falls (350). There seem to be no waterfalls of more note in Asia than those of the Cavery River of India.

One of the grandest falls in Europe is that of the Ruikanfoss ("smoking fall"), on the Maan River in Norway. The height of the cataract is 805 feet. In Sweden, on the Gotha River, a few miles below its outlet from Lake Wener, are the celebrated falls of Trollhätta, which have a height of over 100 feet. The cascade of Gavarnie, in the Pyrenees, is reputed the loftiest in Europe, being over 1,300 feet high. Its volume of water, however, is so small that it is converted into spray before reaching the bottom of the fall. Another waterfall in the Pyrenees is that of Seculéjo, in the neighborhood of Bagnères-de-Luchon. It ascends from the Lac d'Espingo, into the Lac de Seculéjo, or d'Oo, a singularly romantic mountain reservoir, from a height of 820 feet, and is the most copious of the Pyrenean waterfalls. The Swiss Alps likewise contain some falls of great sublimity. At Lauterbrunnen, in addition to numerous other cascades, is the renowned fall of the Staubbach, about 870 feet high, which, however, from its small volume of water, has none of the terrific adjuncts of a cataract, and resembles, in front, a beautiful lace veil suspended from the summit of the precipice. Near Martigny is the picturesque waterfall of the Sellesche or Pissevache, the final leap of the cascade being 128 feet. The falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen are renowned over Europe. They are 300 feet broad, and nearly 100 feet high. In Italy the falls of Terni, or the Cascate del Marmore on the Velino, have been immortalized by Lord Byron, and though artificial, are justly regarded as among the finest and most picturesque in Europe. They consist of three falls, the aggregate height of which may be estimated at 550 feet. The falls of the Anio or Teverone, at Tivoli, are likewise very beautiful. They, too, are artificial, and have a fall of about 80 feet.

Catarman, kä-tär-män', Philippines, a town on the north coast of the Island of Samar, situated on the Catarman River, 55 miles north

northeast of Catbalogan. It has a good anchorage ground. In 1871 the town was destroyed by a volcano which burst forth in July from low land on the west side of island, and in two months had thrown up a hill two thirds of a mile long, one third of a mile wide, and about 450 feet high, destroying all vegetation for miles around. At the time of the visit of the Challenger, January 1875, the volcano had attained height of 1,950 feet, and was still active, there being visible columns of smoke by day and series of small fires at its summit by night. Pop. 10,482.

membrane. It is a symptom purely, and not a Catarrh, ka-tär', a flow from a mucous disease, and any mucous membrane of the body may be affected by an acute or chronic inflammation, usually entitled an acute or chronic catarrh; as, catarrh of the nasal mucous membrane, of the pharynx, larynx, stomach, inteshas general significance only, but it is much used tines, rectum, bladder, vagina, etc. The word by vendors of nostrums. See NOSE AND THROAT.

Catawba, Wateree', or Santee', a river rising in the Blue Mountains, N. C., near Morgantown. It runs east and then south into South Carolina, where it is known for some distance as the Wateree, but after the confluence of the Broad River, it takes the name of Santee, then runs east by south, and after a course of 270 miles falls by two mouths into the sea between Charleston and Georgetown. This river gives its name to a wine, the grape from which it is made having been first discovered near its

sources.

Catawba, a light sparkling wine, of rich Muscatine flavor, produced in several parts of the United States. It is made from the Catawba grape, first found growing on the banks of the Catawba River in the Carolinas. This wine is now in extensive use, and is gradually superseding Rhenish and French sparkling wines, to which, in general character, it bears a resemblance. See WINES.

Catbalogan, kat-bä-lō-gän, Philippines, small bay at the mouth of the Antigas River on capital of the province of Sámar, situated on a the west coast. It is protected by a number of islands, Daram being the largest. The anchorage ground is not safe during the monsoon then the refuge for vessels. The town has a weather; Parasan Island Bay, 10 miles west, is large trade in hemp and cocoanut-oil with Manila, and steamers from Manila call ever two weeks. Pop. 6,459.

Catch, a short piece of music written generally in three or four parts. It is a sort of short canon, the second voice taking up the theme when the first has completed the first phrase, the third following the second in same manner. These compositions are most frequently of a humorous and bacchanalian character, and have been from Purcell's time very popular in England.

Catch'fly, any one of several plants of various genera. The name is perhaps most commonly applied to species of Silene of the natural order Caryophyllacea, since their calyces and stems exude a clammy, sticky substance which attracts flies and holds and kills those that alight. Certain species of Lychnis, especially L. viscaria, a closely related genus, are also popularly called by this name. Sometimes,

too, the Venus flytrap is called Carolina catchfly. See CARNIVOROUS PLANTS; LYCHNIS; SILENE.

Cateau, kä-tō, Le, or Cateau-Cambrésis, kän-brä-zē, France, a town in the department of Nord, on the right bank of the Selle, 15 miles east-southeast of Cambrai. It was once fortified, though now open, and is famous for the treaty of its name signed here in 1559, by which Henri II. of France gave up Calais to the English; and agreed to abandon all he had conquered from Spain on condition that that country would do the like with her French conquests. Altogether France lost 189 fortified towns by the treaty. Le Cateau has manufactures of cotton, wool, merinos, cambric shawls, and a considerable trade in them, and in wine, iron, coal, and agricultural products in general. Pop. 10,500.

was

Catechesis, kǎt-e-ke'sis, the science which teaches the proper method of instructing beginners in the principles of the Christian religion by question and answer, which is called the catechetical method. Hence catechist and catechize. The art of the catechist consists in being able to elicit and develop the ideas of the youthful mind. This part of religious science was first cultivated in modern times, and Rosenmüller, Daub, Winter, Heinrich, Müller, Schwarz, Palmer, and others, have particularly distinguished themselves by their writings upon it. Catechetical (kǎt-ē-kět'i-kǎl) Schools, institutions for the elementary education of Christian teachers, of which there were many in the Eastern Church from the 2d to the 5th century. They were different from catechumenical schools, which were attached to almost every church, and which were intended only for the popular instruction of proselytes and children; whereas the catechetical schools were intended to communicate a scientific knowledge of Christianity. The first and most renowned established about the middle of the 2d century, for the Egyptian Church at Alexandria, on the model of the famous schools of Grecian learning in that place. (See ALEXANDRIAN AGE.) Teachers like Pantænus, Clement, and Origen gave them splendor and secured their permanence. They combined instruction in rhetoric, oratory, and music, in classical Grecian literature, and the Eclectic philosophy, with the principal branches of theological study, exegesis, the doctrines of religion, and the traditions of the Church; distinguished the popular religious belief from the Gnosis, or the thorough knowledge of religion; established Christian theology as a science, and finally attacked the dreams of the Chiliasts (believers in a millennium); but by blending Greek speculations and Gnostic phantasies with the doctrines of the Church, and by an allegorical interpretation of the Bible, contributed to the introduction of heresies. The distraction of the Alexandrian Church by the Arian controversies proved the destruction of the catechetical schools in that place about the middle of the 4th century. The catechetical school at Antioch appears not to have been a permanent institution like the Alexandrian, but only to have been formed around distinguished teachers, when there happened to be any in the place. There were some distinguished teachers in Antioch about the year 220. We have no certain information, however, of the theological

teachers in that place, such as Lucian, Diodorus of Tarsus, and Theodore of Mopsuestia, until the latter part of the 4th century. These teachers were distinguished from the Alexandrian oy more sober views of Christianity, by confining themselves to the literal interpretation of the Bible, by a cautious use of the types of the Old Testament, and by a bolder discussion of doctrines. The Nestorian and Eutychian controversies, in the 5th century, drew after them the ruin of the schools at Antioch. Of a similar character were the schools instituted at Edessa in the 3d century, and destroyed in 489. and the school afterward established at Nisibis, by the Nestorians, in its stead; both of which were in Mesopotamia. To these schools succeeded, at a later date, the cathedral and monastic schools, especially among the western Christians, who, as late as the 6th century, made use of the heathen schools, and had never established catechetical

schools even at Rome.

Cat'echism, a form of instruction by question and answer, especially instruction in Christian doctrine by that method; and not the instruction only, but the book in which the questions and answers are contained. The Catechetical school of Alexandria was an institution designed to instruct pagans in the doctrines of the Christian Church (2d century). Its founder, Pantenos, was a Greek convert deeply learned in the Grecian philosophy and in the Hebrew Scriptures. Among his disciples was Titus Flavius Clemens, who became his successor as head of the school; and to Clemens (Clement of Alexandria) succeeded the illustrious Origen, who, at the early age of 18, was deemed worthy to be named to so responsible a post.

The catechetical instruction given by these masters of the Alexandrine school was conveyed rather in the form of lectures than in that of question and answer. The more familiar instruc tion given to catechumens in the early Church was of the same nature, but more simple and elementary. In the latter half of the 4th century St. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, composed 23 lectures, or in Greek katacheseis, of which 18 were addressed to postulants for baptism (catechumens) and five to the neophytes after their baptism. These latter he called mystagogic catacheses, or instruction in the mysteries of Christianity. They are of a more popular character than the catacheses of the Alexandrines, and are believed to be the first example of a popular compendium of the Christian doctrines. In the Roman Catholic Church the Catechism of the Council of Trent, or Roman Catechism or Catechismus ad Parochos (Catechism for Parish Priests) is addressed especially to pastors and others having cure of souls, suggesting to them the manner of expounding Christian doctrine and of enforcing the precepts of Christian morality in their sermons from the pulpit and in conveying religious instruction to the young. It is also designed as a basis and model in composing short expositions of Christian doctrine for popular use among the laity. The Catechism of the Council of Trent was first published in 1566 in Latin, and formed a considerable volume, 500 pages 8vo. A decree of the Council of Trent ordered all bishops to "take care to have the Catechism faithfully translated into the vernacular language and expounded to the people by all pastors." Translations were accordingly

made into Italian, French, Spanish, and German. The first English translation was not published till 1829. It is a large octavo, closely printed, of over 400 pages. The work possesses high authority, but not the highest; it does not rank with the creeds of the Church or with the canons and decrees of councils or the dogmatic definitions of Popes.

All the principal divisions of Protestantism the Anglican Church and its offshoots, the Lutheran and Calvinistic churches, the Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists- have catechisms. Many of these Protestant catechisms, as the Catechism of Luther, the Calvinist of Geneva, the Westminster Larger and Shorter catechisms, the Catechism of the Church of England, possess in their several churches an authority equal or comparable to that of their several creeds or confessions of faith.

Catechist. See CATECHISM.

Catechu, an earthy or resin-like substance, used in dyeing and calico-printing, and in medicine as an astringent. It is obtained by boiling the leaves, wood, and fruit of certain plants growing in India and other eastern countries (notably the Acacia catechu), and concentrating the extract by evaporation until it will solidify. Catechu (known also in the trade as "cutch") consists mainly of catechu-tannic acid, which is soluble in cold water, and catechin, which is insoluble in cold water, but soluble in hot water. In medicine catechu is of service because of the tannin that it contains. It acts as an astringent and is serviceable in diarrhoea and dysentery. Catechu is also used in lozenges for affections of the mouth and throat.

Catechumen, a person who is under instruction and probation preparatory to admission to membership in the Christian Church through baptism. On the day of Pentecost and in the early days of the Church's mission the converts to the religion of Jesus Christ were admitted through baptism to fellowship in thousands at a time, without any preliminary inquiry into their dispositions, and without any instruction in the articles of Christian belief or the new obligations contracted by admission into the Christian body. But when the first enthusiasm of conversion had cooled doubtless many were found who "walked no more" in the way of the apostles and went back to their pagan or their Jewish beliefs and practices, or worse, who after two changes of religion lapsed into open contempt of all religion and of all morality. To guard against the scandal of such apostasies the Church provided a system of preliminary graduated instruction and probation for those who desired admission to the Christian communion. The candidates for admission to the Church, to the body of the faithful (believers, fideles, pistoi) were called catechumeni (persons under instruction) and even in this class there were three or even four separate grades. There was the first grade, that of those who, having expressed a desire for admission were put under instruction privately by some officer of the Church: this class was not admitted at all to the assemblies of the faithful. Those in the second grade, that of the acroomenoi, audientes, hearers, were admitted to the assembly for worship, but were required to withdraw after the reading of the stated passages from the evangelic and apostolic books and the sermon or

exhortation by the bishop. Those of the third grade, the gonyclinontes, genuflectenter, those "bending the knee," that is, who join in the prayers of the faithful, remained in the congregation till certain prayers in the liturgy were said and the bishop had pronounced his benediction. The fourth grade included all those who, having passed the first three were to receive the rite of baptism and thereby were to be admitted to full communion with the faithful on the next stated day for administration of that sacrament: these are the photizomenoi, instructed, or competentes, or electi. The first two grades are not recognized as two by all Church historians.

Such a term of preliminary instruction and probation was imperatively necessary in the ages of persecution, to save the Christian body from the scandal of apostasy on the part of converts who entered the Church either from unworthy motives, as, for example to act as informers; or who entered without weighing the obligation they assumed to lead a holy life void of all offense, and who disgraced their Christian profession by their disorderly lives. The institution of the catechumenate persisted after the peace of the Church was proclaimed by the first Christian emperor, and indeed the need of it was greater seemed the gateway to honor and power in the now that the profession of the Christian religion The press of state instead of to martyrdom. candidates for admission to the Church was great; and even the children of believers like converts from the pagan religion had to pass through the catechumenal grades. Out of this grew a great abuse and a great scandal. Men who sought admission to the Church for other reasons than a desire to lead a Christian life, would enter themselves as catechumens, postulants, and would continue in that grade for an indefinite period, not pledging themselves to observance of the law of Christ and the Church till the end of their life was at hand. Nor was it the converts from paganism alone that thus deferred baptism, as Constantine did, but the children of Christian parents often followed their example. Yet the motive for deferring baptism was not always a desire to evade the obligations of the Christian profession; in very many instances the delay was prompted by a conscientious scruple lest the baptized person falling from grace afterward should commit a sin that could never be condoned: among illustrious men who for a time acted on this scruple are numbered even doctors of the Church-Saints Ambrose, Gregory of Nazianzum, Augustin.

The ancient church edifices provided for the separation of the catechumens from the faithful that were in full communion. In the ancient church of Saint Clement in Rome, the body of the building is divided off by stone constructions into the presbyterium, chancel or sanctuary for the clergy at the eastern end, a middle compart

ment for the faithful in full communion - the galleries here being reserved for the women— and in the western end, or front, a much larger compartment of the nave for the catechumens.

Category, in logic and philosophy, an assemblage of all the beings contained under any genus or kind ranged in order. Metaphysicians distribute all beings, all the objects of our thoughts or ideas, into certain genera or classes, which classes the Greeks call categories, and the Latins predicaments. The ancients, follow

CATEL

ing Aristotle, generally make 10 categories. Under the first all substances are comprised, and all accidents or attributes under the last nine, namely, quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, time, place, situation, and habit. This arrangement, however, is now almost excluded. Descartes thought that all nature may be better considered under these seven divisions: spirit, matter, quantity, substance, figure, motion, and rest. Others make but two categories, substance and attribute, or subject and accident; or three, accident being divided into the inherent and circumstantial. The arrangement of the 10 categories was borrowed from the Pythagorean school. It is said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum. From him it passed to Plato (who, however, admitted only five categories substance, identity, diversity, motion, and rest) and from Plato to Aristotle. The Stoics held four-subjects, qualities, independent circumstances, relative circumstances. The term categories is applied by J. S. Mill to the most general heads under which everything that may be asserted of any subject may be arranged. Of these, five are recognized by Mill; namely, existence, coexistence, sequence or succession, causation, and resemblance. This arrangement affords a general classification of all possible propositions, which must thus either affirm or deny the existence of one or more things or attributes, the coexistence, sequence, or resemblance of two or more things or attributes, or must affirm or deny that one thing is the cause of another. Causation, however, is regarded by him only as a peculiar case of succession, so that the five categories of Mill may be considered to be reduced to four, causation being omitted. For the categories of Kant, see KANT.

Catel, kä těl, Franz, German artist: b. Berlin 22 Feb. 1778; d. Rome 19 Dec. 1856. His earliest efforts were designs for illustrated almanacs. He then painted in oil and water colors, and took up his abode in Rome in 1812. Overbeck, Schadow, and Cornelius gave him much encouragement, and he painted historical and genre pieces, and landscapes, in which lastnamed department of his art he was especially successful. During a residence in Sicily, about the year 1818, he painted a large number of views of Mount Etna, and other prominent places on the island. He died rich, directing his fortune to be invested for the benefit of poor artists.

Cat'enary, the curve assumed by a perfectly flexible cord supported at both ends and allowed to sag between supports. The cables of a suspension bridge hang in catenaries before any of the other parts of the bridge are attached. The effect of the weight of the road-way, etc., is to draw the cables into curves more nearly approaching the parabola.

Cat'erpillar, the larva of a moth or butterfly. The body is long and cylindrical, consisting, besides the head, of 3 thoracic and 10 abdominal segments, the last one forming the suranal plate. The three pairs of thoracic legs are solid, horny, and jointed, while the supports of the abdominal segments, of which there are five pairs, are soft and fleshy. Caterpillars are very voracious, the digestive canal being very large. The American silk-worm (Telea polyphemus), at the end of its life as a caterpillar, has eaten not less than 120 oak leaves weighing three fourths of a pound; its food, taken in 56 days,

CATFISH

equals in weight 86,000 times the primitive weight of the worm. The jaws of caterpillars are large, black, horny appendages, and are toothed on the cutting edge so as to pass through a leaf somewhat like a circular saw. The eyes are minute, simple eyelets, three or four on each side of the head, and only useful, probably, in distinguishing day from night. The silk is spun through the tongue-like projection (spinneret) of the under lip. It is secreted in two long sacs within the body. The thread is drawn out by the two fore feet, which are threejointed and end in a single claw. The legs on the hind body, sometimes called prop-legs, are fleshy, not jointed, and end in a crown of hooks which curve outward, enabling the caterpillar to firmly grasp the edge of the leaf or a twig of its food-plant. Most caterpillars are more or less hairy or spiny, rendering them, when especially so, disagreeable to birds; besides this, they are bright colored, so that birds readily recognize them and waste no time over them, but search for the common green smoothbodied ones, which are, however, so difficult of detection by the birds that plenty are left to become moths or butterflies. Certain caterpillars, as the currant-worm, though smoothbodied, are brightly spotted; these, however, have a disagreeable taste. The bright colors are thus danger signals, hung out to warn the birds and other enemies.

Catesby, Mark, English naturalist: b. probably in London about 1679; d. London 23 Dec. 1749. He traveled in North America in 1710-19 and 1722-6, and published 'Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands' (2 vols. 1731-43), 'British-American Flowers,' and a work on the fishes, reptiles, and insects of the isle of Providence. German translations of the first and last appeared at Nuremberg.

Catfish, any of the fishes of the order Nematognathi, more especially of the family Siluride. This large family is characterized by having the body naked or covered with bony plates, but without true scales. About the mouth there are two or more barbels, the longest of which are at the corners of the mouth. There is usually a stout, generally serrated, spine in front of the dorsal fin, and another in front of each pectoral fin. These spines are likely to inflict considerable injury on the careless fisherman. There is a poison-gland connected with the pectoral spine of some of the smaller species, and wounds are very painful. This is one of the most widely distributed families of fishes, and is especially abundant in South America and Africa. Most of them live in fresh waters. There are estimated to be about 1,000 species.

The catfish are sluggish in their movements, securing their prey rather by stratagem than by swiftness. They are bottom-feeders and indiscriminate, so that although, on account of their size and abundance, they constitute an important element in the fish food of the countries they inhabit, their flesh is not considered of high quality in taste. North and middle America contain 100 or more species, of which a third, perhaps, are to be found in the United States and Mexico. The majority are not of much importance, but some are of great local value. At the head of the commercial list stands the