against the Vandals (467) were unsuccessful. His grandson Leo II. succeeded, but survived only a few months, when Zeno, the father of Leo, who had previously been appointed his colleague, became sole emperor (474). The government of this weak emperor, who was hated by his subjects, was disturbed by rebellions and internal disorders of the empire. The Goths depopulated the provinces till their king Theodoric turned his arms against Italy (489). Ariadne, widow of Zeno, raised the minister Anastasius, whom she married, to the throne (491). The nation, once excited to discontents and tumults, could not be entirely appeased by the alleviation of their burdens and by wise decrees. The forces of the empire, being thus weakened, could not offer an effectual resistance to the Persians and the Bulgarians along the Danube. To prevent their incursions into the peninsula of Constantinople, Anastasius built the long wall, as it is called. After the death of Anastasius the soldiers proclaimed Justin emperor (518). Notwithstanding his low birth he maintained possession of the throne. Religious persecutions, undertaken at the instigation of the clergy, and various crimes, into which he was seduced by his nephew Justinian, disgrace his feign. He was renowned as a legislator, and his reign was distinguished by the victories of his general Belisarius; but how unable he was to revive the strength of his empire was proved by its rapid decay after his death. Justin II., his successor (565), was an avaricious, cruel, weak prince, governed by his wife. The Longobardi (Lombards) tore from him part of Italy (568), His war with Persia, for the possession of Armenia (570), was unsuccessful; the Avari plundered the provinces on the Danube, and the violence of his grief at these misfortunes deprived him of reason. Tiberius, his minister, a man of merit, was declared Cæsar, and the general, Justinian, conducted the war against Persia with success. The Greeks now allied them selves, for the first time, with the Turks. Against his successor, Tiberius II. (578), the Empress Sophia and the general Justinian conspired in vain. From the Avari the emperor purchased peace; from the Persians it was extorted by his general, Mauritius or Maurice (582), who, after the death of Tiberius in the same year, was declared his successor. Mauritius, under other circumstances, would have made an excellent monarch, but, for the times, wanted prudence and resolution. He was indebted for the tranquillity of the eastern frontiers to the gratitude of King Chosroes II., whom, in 591, he restored to the throne, from which he had been deposed by his subjects. Nevertheless, the war against the Avari was unsuccessful, through the errors of Commentiolus. The army was discontented, and was irritated now by untimely severity and parsimony, and now by timid indulgence. They finally proclaimed Phocas, one of their officers, emperor. Mauritius was taken in his flight and put to death (602). The vices of Phocas and his incapacity for government produced the greatest disorder in the empire. Heraclius, son of the governor of Africa, took up arms, conquered Constantinople, and caused Phocas to be executed (610). He distinguished himself only in the short period of the Persian war. During the first 12 years of his reign the Avari,

and other nations of the Danube, plundered the European provinces, and the Persians conquered the coasts of Syria and Egypt. Having finally succeeded in pacifying the Avari, he marched against the Persians (622), and defeated them; but during this time the Avari, who had renewed the war, made an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople in 626. Taking advantage of an insurrection of the subjects of Chosroes, he penetrated into the centre of Persia. By the peace concluded with Siroes (628), he recovered the lost provinces and the holy cross. But the Arabians, who now became powerful under Mohammed and the caliphs, conquered Phoenicia, the countries on the Euphrates, Judea, Syria, and all Egypt (635-641). Among his descendants there was not one able prince. He was succeeded by his son Constantine III., probably in conjunction with his stepbrother Heracleonas (641). The former soon died, and the latter lost his crown in a rebellion, and was mutilated. After him Constans, son of Constantine, obtained the throne (642). His sanguinary spirit of persecution, and the murder of his brother Theodosius (650), made him odious to the nation. The Arabians, pursuing their conquests, took from him part of Africa, Cyprus, and Rhodes, and defeated him even at sea (653). Internal disturbances obliged him to make peace. After this he left Constantinople, and in 663 began an unsuccessful war against the Lombards in Italy. He died at Syracuse in 668. Constantine ÍV., Pogonatus, son of Constans, vanquished his Syracusan competitor Mezentius, and, in the beginning of his reign, shared the government with his brothers Tiberius and Heraclius. During the early part of his reign the Arabians inundated all Africa and Sicily, penetrated through Asia Minor into Thrace, and attacked Constantinople, for several successive years, by sea. Nevertheless, he made peace with them on favorable terms. But on the other hand, the Bulgarians obliged him to pay a tribute (680). Justinian II., his son, who succeeded him in 685, weakened the power of the Maronites, but fought without success against the Bulgarians and against the Arabians. Leontius dethroned this cruel prince, and after mutilating, banished him to the Tauric Chersonese (695). Leontius was dethroned by Apsimar, or Tiberius III. (698), who was dethroned by Trebelius, king of the Bulgarians, who restored Justinian (705); but Philippicus .Bardanes rebelled anew. With Justinian II, the race of Heraclius was extinguished. The only care of Philippicus was the spreading of Monothelism, while the Arabians wasted Asia Minor and Thrace. Philippicus reigned from 711 to 713, when he was deposed by Anastasius, who at the end of three years retired to a monastery, the army sent out against the Arabians having revolted against him, and proclaimed their leader, Theodosius, emperor. This prince, known as Theodosius III., after a reign of only 14 months, was compelled in his turn to yield the throne to Leo the Isaurian, general of the army of the East, who refused to recognize him, and marched against Constantinople (May 717). Leo repelled the Arabians from Constantinople, which they had attacked for almost two years, and suppressed the rebellion excited by Basilius and the former emperor Anastasius. From 726 the abolition of the worship of images absorbed his attention, and the Italian provinces were al

lowed to become a prey to the Lombards, who thus put an end to the exarchate of Ravenna (728), while the Arabians plundered the eastern provinces. After his death (741), his son Constantine V. ascended the throne- -a courageous, active, and noble prince. He vanquished his rebellious brother-in-law Artabasdes, wrested from the Arabians part of Syria and Armenia, and overcame at last the Bulgarians, against whom he had been long unsuccessful. He died (775), and was succeeded by his son Leo IV., who fought successfully against the Arabians, and this latter by his son Constantine VI. (780), whose imperious mother, Irene, his guardian and associate in the government, raised a powerful party by the restoration of the worship of images. He endeavored, in vain, to free himself from the dependence on her and her favorite, Stauratius, and died in 797, after having had his eyes put out. The war against the Arabians and Bulgarians was long continued; against the first it was unsuccessful. The design of the empress to marry Charlemagne excited the discontent of the patricians, who placed one of their own order, Nicephorus, upon the throne (802). Irene died in a monastery. Nicephorus became tributary to the Arabians, and fell in the war against the Bulgarians (811). Stauratius, his son, was deprived of the crown by Michael I., and he, in turn, by Leo V. (813). Leo was dethroned and put to death by Michael II. (820). During the reign of the latter the Arabians conquered Sicily, Lower Italy, Crete, and other countries. He prohibited the worship of images, as did also his son Theophilus (829-42). Theodora, widow of Theophilus and guardian of his son Michael III., put a stop to the dispute about images (842). During a cruel persecution of the Paulicians, considered to be an offshoot of the Manichæans, the Arabians devastated the Asiatic provinces. The dissolute and extravagant Michael confined his mother in a monastery. The government was administered in his name by Bardas, his uncle, and after the death of Bardas by Basil, by whom Michael was put to death (867). Basil I., who came to the throne in 867, was not altogether a contempt ible monarch. He died 886. The reign of his learned son, Leo VI. (the Philosopher), was not very happy. He died 911. His son, Constantine VII.. Porphyrogenitus (that is, "born in the purple"), a minor when he succeeded his father, was placed under the guardianship of his colleague, Alexander, and after Alexander's death, in 912, under that of his mother Zoe. Romanus Lacapenus, his general, obliged him, in 919, to share the throne with him and his children, Constantine VIII. and Stephanus. Constantine subsequently took sole possession of it again, and reigned mildly, but weakly. His son, Romanus II., succeeded him in 959, and fought successfully against the Arabians. To him succeeded, in 963, his general Nicephorus II. (Phocas), who was put to death by his own general, John Zimisces (969), who carried on a successful war against the Russians. Basil II., son of Romanus, succeeded this good prince in 976. He vanquished the Bulgarians and the Arabians, His brother, Constantine IX. (1025), was not equal to him. Romanus III, became emperor (1028) by marriage with Zoe, daughter of Constantine. This dissolute but able princess caused her husband to be executed, and successively raised to the throne

Michael IV. (1034), Michael V. (1041), and Constantine X. (1042). Russians and Arabians meanwhile devastated the empire. Her sister Theodora succeeded her on the throne (1054). Her successor, Michael VI. (1056), was dethroned by Isaac Comnenus in 1057, who became a monk (1059). His successor, Constantine XI., Ducas, fought successfully against the Uzes. Eudocia his wife, guardian of his sons, Michael, Andronicus, and Constantine, was intrusted with the administration (1067), married Romanus IV., and brought him the crown. He carried on an unsuccessful war against the Turks, who kept him for some time prisoner. Michael VII., son of Constantine, deprived him of the throne (1071). Michael was dethroned by Nicephorus III. (1078), and the latter by Alexius I., Comnenus (1081). Under his reign the Crusades commenced. His son, John II., came to the throne (1118), and fought with great success against the Turks and other barbarians. The reign of his son, Manuel I., who succeeded him (1143), was also not unfortunate. His son, Alexius II., succeeded (1180), and was dethroned by his guardian, Andronicus (1183), as was the latter by Isaac (1185). After a reign disturbed from without and within, Isaac was dethroned by his brother Alexius III. (1195). The Crusaders restored him and his son, Alexius IV.; but the seditious Constantinopolitans proclaimed Alexius V., Ducas Murzuphlus, emperor, who put Alexius IV. to death. At the same time Isaac II. died. During the last reigns the kings of Sicily had made many conquests on the coasts of the Adriatic. The Latins now forced their way to Constantinople (1204), conquered the city, and retained it, together with most of the European territories of the empire. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was made emperor; Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat, obtained Thessalonica as a kingdom, and the Venetians acquired a large extent of territory. In Attalia, Rhodes, Philadelphia, Corinth, and Epirus, independent sovereigns arose. Theodore Lascaris seized on the Asiatic provinces, in 1206 made Nice (Nicæa) the capital of the empire, and was at first more powerful than Baldwin. In 1204 a descendant of the Comneni, named Alexius, established a principality at Trebizond, in which his great-grandson John took the title of emperor. Neither Baldwin nor his successors were able to secure the tottering throne. He himself died in captivity among the Bulgarians (1206). He was followed first by Henry, his brother, then by Peter, brother-in-law of Henry (1217), and then by Robert of Courtenay, son of Peter, who succeeded in 1219, but was not crowned till 1221. With the exception of Constantinople, all the remaining Byzantine territory, including Thessalonica, was conquered by John, emperor of Nice. Baldwin II., brother of Robert, succeeded and reigned under the guardianship of his colleague, John of Brienne, king of Jerusalem, till 1237, after which he was sole ruler till 1261. In that year Michael Palæologus, king of Nice, conquered Constantinople, and Baldwin died in the West, a private person. The sovereigns of Nice, up to this period were Theodore Lascaris (1206); John Ducas Vatatges, a good monarch and successful warrior (1222); Theodore II., his son (1254); John Lascaris (1259), who was deprived of the crown by Michael Palæologus in December

1259, who himself received the crown I Jan. 1260. In 1261 Michael took Constantinople from the Latins. He labored to unite himself with the Latin Church, but his son, Andronicus II. (1282), renounced the connection. Internal disturbances and foreign wars, particularly with the Turks, threw the exhausted empire into confusion. Andronicus III., his grandson, obliged him to divide the throne, and at length wrested it entirely from him (1328). He waged war unsuccessfully against the Turks, and died in 1341. His son, John Palæologus, was obliged to share the throne with his guardian, John Cantacuzene, during the first years of his reign. The son of the latter, Matthew, was also made emperor. But John Cantacuzene resigned the crown, and Matthew was compelled to abdicate (1355), when John Palæologus, the son of Andronicus III., became sole emperor. Under his reign the Turks first obtained a firm footing in Europe, and conquered Gallipoli (1357). The family of Palæologus from this time were gradually deprived of their European territories, partly by revolt, partly by the Turks. The Sultan Amurah took Adrianople (1361). Bajazet conquered almost all the European provinces except Constantinople, and obliged John to pay him tribute. The latter was, some time after, driven out by his own son, Andronicus, who was succeeded by his second son, Manuel (1391). Bajazet besieged Constantinople, defeated an army of western warriors under Sigismund, king of Hungary, near Nicopolis (1396), and Manuel was obliged to place John, son of Andronicus, on the throne. Timur's invasion of the Turkish provinces saved Constantinople for this time (1402). Manuel then recovered his throne, and regained some of the lost provinces from the contending sons of Bajazet. To him succeeded his son John, Palæologus II. (1425), whom Amurath II. stripped of all his territories except Constantinople, and laid under tribute (1444). To the Emperor John succeeded his brother Constantine Palæologus. With the assistance of his general, Justinian, a Genoese, he withstood the superior forces of the enemy with fruitless courage, and fell in the defense of Constantinople, by the conquest of which (29 May 1453) Mohammed II. put an end to the Greek or Byzantine empire. In 1461 David Comnenus, emperor of Trebizond, submitted to him, and at a subsequent period was put to death. See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'; Pears, 'Fall of Constantinople (1885); Bury, The Later Roman Empire' (1889); Oman, Byzantine Empire' (1892); Harrison, Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages) (1900).

Byzantine Literature.- The Greek literature of the period of the Byzantine empire is almost entirely destitute of originality, and derives importance almost entirely from the mass of valuable historical material embodied in it. Among the historians proper the more notable are Procopius of Cæsarea; Agathias, who wrote an account of Justinian's reign; Nicephorus Gregoras; Anna Comnena, daughter of the Emperor Alexius I., author of a highly laudatory life of her father; Pachymerus; George Codinus; Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitus, from whom we have many works on history, law, politics, and science; John Cantacuzenus, emperor and historian; and at the very end of the

period, Michael Ducas. Poetry, in the proper sense of the word, can scarcely be said to have existed at all. Theodorus Prodromus, who flourished in the later 12th century, is the chief of the versifiers, among his works being a long romance having Rhodanthe and Dosikles as its heroine and hero, some dramas, historical poems, epistles, etc. Georgius of Pisidia, in the early 7th century, wrote war poems; Nicetas Eugenianus, a contemporary of Prodromus, wrote a work in imitation of the latter's romance; and among other writers of verse were Theodosius, of the latter half of the 10th century, Tzetzes and Joannes Pediasimus, the latter two being better known as annotators of the Greek classical writers. Manuel Philes of Ephesus (about 1280-1330) has left many dramas; and we have hymns from Germanus, a patriarch of Constantinople; Theodorus Studites; Porphyrogenitus; Cosmas, an 8th-century writer; Joannes Damascenus (John of Damascus); and Theophanes Ho Graptos. Among writers of grammatical and similar works the most notable are Tzetzes (about 1180), who annotated Homer, Hesiod, Eschylus, and espe cially Aristophanes; Eustathius, archbishop of Myra in Lycia in 1174, best known for his commentary on Homer; Manuel Moschopulus, a 13th-century scholiast; Joannes Pediasimus, of the latter part of the 14th century, chiefly known for his scholia on Hesiod's poems; and Demetrius Triclinius, a scholiast contemporary with Pediasimus. Their work is less valuable in itself than as a link with the more reliable work of their predecessors, or as containing much that would, but for them, have been lost to us. Of the lexicographers Suidas, who lived during the 10th century, is much the most important; but the works of Photius in this department are also of value. Joannes Doxopater, of the later 11th century, wrote on rhetoric; and in the department of philosophy we find the names of Michael Bellus the younger (about 10181105), who also wrote historical and other works, and Joannes Italus. The theologians include Joannes Damascenus, already mentioned, author of Sacra Parallela, a collection of passages from the fathers; and Nicephorus Callistus, a 14th-century writer on ecclesiastical history.

Byzantine Art.-The style which prevailed in the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire, as long as it existed (395-1453) and which has prevailed since in Greece, in the Balkan Peninsula as far as allowed by the Turkish conquerors (as for instance, in convents), and in neighboring lands, such as Moldavia and the Russian lands north of it, and Armenia with other parts of Asia Minor. Byzantine architecture may be said to have assumed its distinctive features in the church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian in the 6th century, and still existing as the chief mosque in Constantinople. It is more especially the style associated with the Greek Church as distinguished from the Roman. The leading forms of the Byzantine style are the round arch, the circle, and in particular the dome. The last is the most conspicuous and characteristic object in Byzantine buildings, and the free and full employment of it was arrived at when by the use of pendentives the architects were enabled to place it on a square apartment instead of a circular or polygonal. In this style of building

incrustation, the masking or covering of brick surfaces with more precious materials, was largely in use. It depended much on color and surface ornament for its effect, and with this intent mosaics wrought on grounds of gold or of positive color are profusely introduced, while colored marbles and stones of various kinds are made much use of. The capitals are of peculiar and original design, the most characteristic being square and tapering downward, and they are very varied in their decorations. Byzantine architecture may be divided into an older and a newer (Neo-Byzantine) style. The most distinctive feature of the latter is that the dome is raised on a perpendicular circular or polygonal piece of masonry (technically the drum) containing windows for lighting the interior, while in the older style the light was admitted by openings in the dome itself. The Byzantine style had a great influence on the architecture of western Europe, especially in Italy, where Saint Mark's in Venice is a magnificent example, as also in Sicily.

Our knowledge of the earliest decorations other than mosaic is very slight. It is gathered from painted manuscripts, book bindings often of metal and ornamented with precious stones, a few enamels, and some glass ware, and a very few paintings on wood, forming parts of the iconostasis or choir screen of this or that church of the Greek form of Christianity. The mosaics are the most important decorations of the earlier art, so far as we have any knowledge of it, and these are more familiar to Europe as found in the churches of Ravenna than in any building farther East. The fact that Moslem rule requires the covering up as with whitewash of these representations when a church is taken over for a mosque, makes it probable that at some future time many fine early mosaics will be uncovered.

The characteristic of Byzantine art is rich decorative effects almost to the exclusion of accurate drawing or modeling of the human figure or faithful representation of nature in any form. Early or late, the attitudes of personages represented are formal and conventional, but the robes are splendid, the backgrounds are rich and the effect is that of a splendid colored pattern with but slight representative or expressional meaning. Sculpture has never risen to excellence; it is almost limited to decorative carvings, of book covers and sacred objects, reliefs in ivory and casting of small figures in bronze. The earlier statues of emperors and the like are chiefly remarkable for the lingering

Roman traditions.

The art sometimes called Neo-Byzantine is of the 10th and following centuries, and has a surprising vigor and individuality. One of the typical churches is that of Saint Elias at Salonica. This has a plan like that of a northern Romanesque church, the three apses, east, north, and south, radiating from the sanctuary, which is covered by a cupola having a high, twelvesided drum with vertical walls pierced with windows forming a continuous arcade, and a very low-pitched roof which covers the shallow, dome-shaped ceiling. That type of cupola is the one which has been used all through the provinces which are now included in European Russia, and in the lands on the Black Sea which still belong to Turkey, as well as in Greece

proper. Paintings often replace mosaics in these more recent churches.

Byzantium, bi-zăn'shĩ-ŭm, the name of the city of Constantinople before its name was changed by Constantine the Great. It was founded by a colony of Greeks from Megara, who, under a leader named Byzas, settled on what seemed a favorable spot at the entrance to the Thracian Bosporus, in 658 B.C. The city which was built by the first colonists was named after their leader. Other colonists followed from different quarters, especially from Miletus, and Byzantium was already a flourishing town when it was taken and sacked by the Persians, in the reign of Darius, the son of Hystaspes. After the retreat of the Persians (479 B.C.) Byzantium soon recovered itself. During the Peloponnesian war it acknowledged for some time the supremacy of the Athenians, but afterward fell away. Alcibiades recovered it for Athens (409), but it was taken by Lysander in 405. At a later period the Byzantines received support from Athens in their resistance against Philip of Macedon. The barbarian Thracians, who occupied the neighboring territory, and the Celts (Galatians), in their migrations to the East, often appeared to threaten the safety of the town; but in spite of this, chiefly owing to its favorable position for commerce, it continued to prosper, and survived the decay of most of the other Greek cities; and even under the Romans it was left free to manage its own affairs, and was allowed to demand dues from all ships passing through the Bosporus, only part of these being claimed by the Romans. At the end of the 2d century of the Christian era Byzantium, unfortunately for itself, sided with Pescennius Niger against Septimius Severus. By the latter it was besieged for three years, and when at last it was forced to surrender Severus ordered its walls to be razed to the ground, deprived the city of its privileges, and placed it under the jurisdiction of the Perinthians. For a time the prosperity of the city was annihilated, until a new and more brilliant era began for it under Constantine the Great. (See CONSTANTINE; CONSTANTINOPLE.) Its early form of government was that of an aristocracy, which passed into an oligarchy. In the year 390 B.C. it received from Thrasybulus a democratical constitution, closely resembling that of the Athenians. Byzantium was the great entrepôt for the grain trade between the countries bordering on the Black Sea and those bordering on the gean.

Bzovius, Abraham (Pol. Bzowski), Polish scholar and divine: b. Proszowice, near Miechow, 1567; d. Rome, 31 Jan. 1637. At the request of Pope Paul V., he spent several years of the latter part of his life in the Vatican, as librarian of the Virginio dei Ursini, and actively engaged in literary pursuits. He was a member of the order of the Dominicans, one of the most voluminous writers of his age, gained for himself a high reputation as professor of philosophy and theology at Milan and Bologna, and crowned the labors of his life by continuing the celebrated ecclesiastical annals of Cæsar Baronius, who had left them off at the year 1198, and completed only 12 volumes. Bzovius carried them to the year 1532, in 9 volumes.

C

the third character of the English alphabet and of all the alphabets derived from the Latin. In its form it is a modification of the primitive Greek gamma. That primitive form was, an angle with vertex pointing to the left; it is the reverse of the ancient Phoenician 7 which points to the right, and of the Old Hebrew gimel, 7. The Latin C (used also by the Greeks to some extent) is the ancient Greek <rounded, just as the later Greek gamma symbol, T, is the angular symbol erected. The Russian alphabet retains the Greek symbol T, but its place is fourth, because in that alphabet the sign for the denti-labial V holds the third place. The Greek gamma (<, T,) seems to have always represented the same sonant guttural as the English g in "go." To express the corresponding mute guttural the Greeks attached the to an upright line, |, making K. In the Latin alphabet of the Romans, as represented in their earliest inscriptions, the C stood for the same sonant guttural as in the Greek, g hard; for example, lecio, later written legio; macistratus, later magistratus; yet at the same time the C represented also the surd guttural K, as it still does in English except before the vowels e and and the diphthongs a and a in words from the Latin. Thus the early Latin alphabet was without the symbol K. There is in this use of the character C in ancient Roman epigraphy ground for the inference that the early Romans confounded the two gutturals k and g hard, as in some localities or in some classes of people the termination ing becomes ink, and something" becomes "somethink." But at a later period the distinction between g hard and k was recognized, and then for the designation of the mute guttural the kappa (K) of the Greek alphabet came into use in Latin writing. But the k was afterward rejected, and its only use in Latin was in writing the word kalenda (abbreviated to kal. or k.) and as an abbreviation of Carthago (Carthage) and of the personal name Caso. No doubt the persistence of k in kalenda was due to the adherence of the Pontifices to the antique forms of the official calendars; and the K standing for the forename Caso was retained as a means of abbreviating that name and distinguishing it from the abbreviation of the name Caius: C. Julius Cæsar is Gaius, but K. Fabius Ambustus is Cæso. But the k having been discarded from the Latin alphabet, its function was assigned to the symbol C, while for representation of the sonant guttural a modified form of C was adopted, namely, the G with the value of g in "go." The soft g, equal to j, was probably unknown to the Romans before the general debasement of the Latin language. After the symbol k had been discarded and been

superseded by C, the symbol C, with the power of gamma, was retained as an initial abbreviation of Gaius, name for a man, and of Gaia (with C reversed ), name of a woman. C was also retained in the formula Cn. as an abbreviation of Gnæus. This use of the initial C as representing g hard (sonant guttural) recalls the primitive equivalence for the Romans of the two gutturals k and g hard; but the modern Latinists, unacquainted with such use of C, have usually pronounced Gaius "Kaius" and Cnæus "Knæus," instead of "Gæus" and "Gnæus." In the Anglo-Saxon, its alphabet having been derived from the Latin, the C had everywhere the value of K, and the same is to be said of the Gælic; that fact gives presumptive proof that at the first contact of the Gælic and Germanic races with men of Latin speech the C in all situations was equivalent to k in Latin; and the German word Kaiser is proof that when the Germans first heard of Julius and the Caesars who succeeded him the head of the Roman state was "Kaisar, not "Casar." The change in the pronunciation of C from k to s, as in French and English; to ch as in Italian, to ts as in German, appears to have come about long after the fall of the Roman empire.

Ca Ira, sä e-ra, a popular song of the great French Revolution. The origin and date of this song are both uncertain, and there are various versions of the words claiming to be original. In all probability it dates from May or June 1790. French writers say that Benjamin Franklin, in speaking of the American Revolution, frequently used the expression "Ça ira" ("it will succeed"). The French republicans caught up the phrase, and "consecrated" it to their own revolution in a popular hymn. The air to which it was adapted was a popular carillon, a favorite one with Marie Antoinette. The refrain or chorus of one of the versions runs thus:

"Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira,

En dépit d' l'aristocrat' et d' la pluie,
Ah ça ira, etc.

Nous nous mouillerons, mais ça finira,"

referring to the rain which fell during the taking of the Bastile.

Caaba, kä'ba, or kā'a-ba, or Kaaba, properly a quadrangular structure, applied particularly to a celebrated temple at Mecca. According to Mussulman tradition, the first Caaba was built by the angels on the model of the pavilion which surrounds the throne of the Most High; the second was built by Adam, with whom it was removed to the skies, where it still exists in a right line above the Caaba of Mecca; the third was built by Seth, but perished in the deluge; the fourth, which now exists, was built