under-lease in either of the two cases just mentioned actually occupying; 4, the immediate lessees or assignees having a £10 yearly interest in £20 lease and actually occupying. In 1850 County voters were increased, and by 13 & 14 V. c. 69, occupiers of lands rated for the poor-rate at a net annual value of £12 or pwards, and registered under the act, are qualified to vote at elections. In the boroughs the £8 (reduced by the Representation of the People (Ireland) Act, 1868, to £4) ownership or cupancy was made the basis of the suffrage, coupled with the conditions of registration, six months' previous occupancy, and the payment of all rates due for more than one half-year. Νο sheration has been made in the county franchise by the Representation of the People (Ireland) Act, 1868.

UNIVERSITIES.-The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have enjoyed the privilege of returning two members each to the House of Commons since the time of James the First. A like privilege of returning two members was conferred on Dublin University by 2&3 W. 4, c. 88, which previously returned but one member, and a privilege of returning one member on London University by the Representation of the People Act, 1867. A like privilege of returning one member was conferred on the Universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews jointly, and on the Universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen jointly, by the Representation of the People (Scotland) Act, 1868. In the Universities the electoral suffrage is independent of residence, property, or occupancy, being Tested, in the case of Oxford and Cambridge, in the doctors and masters of arts, so long as they keep their names on the books of their respective colleges; in the case of the University of Dublin, the fellows, scholars, and graduates, on the like condition of registration; in the case of the University of London, on the graCastes constituting the convocation of the University whose names are for the time being on the registry; and in the case of the Notch Universities, in the members of the general council whose Bames are likewise registered.

As the Ballot Act, 1872 (to be considered hereafter), does not, so far as the method of voting is concerned, apply to the Universities, it will be convenient to notice here that electors of members for in lieu of attending to vote in person,

the

Universities may, aminate any other elector competent to make the prescribed declaration, to deliver at the poll voting papers containing their Form prescribed for voting paper, and to

votes for candidates.

he attested by

a justice of peace, with full name and address.

Voting papers may be inspected and objected to by any person entitled to object to votes. Falsifying voting paper, or making a false answer to any question by a returning or other officer, punishable by fine, or imprisonment not exceeding one year.

The members representing the several divisions of the empire

elected i

in 1868 were

In 1870 the following boroughs, it having been reported by the judges who presided at the hearing of the election petitions that corrupt practices extensively prevailed in them at the last general election, were disfranchised-Bridgewater, Beverley, Cashel, Norwich, Sligo.

III. PROCEEDINGS AT ELECTIONS.

The method of proceeding at elections is regulated by several statutes. The most important of these is the Ballot Act, 1872 (35 & 36 V. c. 33), by which secret voting has been for the first time introduced in both municipal and parliamentary elections. The Ballot Act extends to Ireland and Scotland, and repeals ai statutes inconsistent with the new principle of secret voting. I expires on the 31st of December, 1880, unless parliament shal otherwise direct. We shall next state shortly the method of pro cedure at elections as regulated by the various statutes in force.

The lord chancellor, when a parliament is summoned, sends hi warrant to the clerk of the crown in Chancery, who thereupo issues a writ to the returning officer of every county or boroug for the election of members to serve for the respective counties divisions of counties, or boroughs.

After the parliament is assembled, and during its continuance the House of Commons alone has the right of issuing warrants t fill up vacancies; or during the recess by prorogation or adjourn ment, the speaker has authority to issue his warrant; but n member may, during the recess, accept the stewardship of th Chiltern Hundreds, or of the manors of East Hendred, Northstea or Hempholme, or of the escheater of Munster.

The returning officer is required, in the case of a county election within two days after the day on which he receives the writ, and the case of a borough election, on the day on which he receives ti writ or the following day, to give public notice, between the hour

of rine in the morning and four in the afternoon, of the day on wich and the place at which he intends to proceed to an election, and of the time appointed for the election, and of the day on which the poll will be taken in case the election is contested, and of the time and place at which forms of nomination papers may be obained; and in the case of a county election is required to send one of such notices by post, under cover, to the postmaster of the principal post office of each polling place in the county, endorsed with the words "Notice of election," and the same is to be forwarded free of charge; and the postmaster is to publish it forthwith. The day of election is to be fixed by the returning officer in the case of an election for a county or a district borough not later than the ninth day after the day on which he receives the writ, with an interval of not less than three clear days between the day on which he gives the notice and the day of election; and in the face of an election for any borough other than a district borough, not later than the fourth day after the day on which he receives the writ, with an interval of not less than two clear days between the day on which he gives the notice and the day of election.

At the time thus appointed the election takes place. The principal place of election is to be a convenient room in the town in which the election is to be held. The time appointed for the election is to be such two hours between the hours of ten in the forenoon and three in the afternoon, as may be appointed by the returning officer, who must attend during the two hours and for one hour after. All candidates are to be nominated in writing, such writing to be subscribed by a proposer and seconder and eight others registered electors of the county or borough for which election is sought. This writing is to be delivered up to the returning

er during the time appointed for the election, and if no more candidates stand nominated at the expiration of one hour than there are vacancies to be filled up, the nominated candidates are to be declared elected, but if otherwise, the returning officer is to adjourn the election, and, as soon as practicable after the a journment, to give public notice of the day on which a poll is to be taken, and of the candidates described as in their respective raination papers, and of the names of the persons who subscribe the nomination paper of each candidate, and of the order in which the names of the candidates are to be printed in the hallot paper; and, in the case of an election for a county, to deliver to the postmaster of the principal post office of a town in which is situate the place of election a paper, signed by himself, containing the names of the candidates nominated, and stating the day which the poll is to be taken, and the postmaster is to forward the information contained in such paper by telegraph, free of charge, to the several postal telegraph offices situate in the county for which the election is to be held, and such information is to be published forthwith at each such office in the manner in which post-office

notices are usually published. The polling day, in the case of an election for a county or district borough, is not to be less than two nor more than six clear days, and in the case of a borough not being a district borough, more than three clear days, after the day fixed for the election. A sufficient number of polling stations is to be provided at each polling place by the returning officer, who is required to distribute them as he thinks most convenient, but it is necessary that in a district borough there should be at least one polling station at each contributory place. Each polling station is to be furnished with a sufficient number of compartments for voters to mark their votes, screened from observation, but there must be one compartment for every 150 electors entitled to vote at the polling station. No person is to be permitted to vote at any polling station except the one allotted to him. No inquiry is allowed at polling, except as to the identity of the voter, and whether he has already voted at the same election. Persons excluded from the register by the barrister may tender their votes at the election, and such tender be recorded.

By 6 V. c. 18, s. 79, the register is to be deemed conclusive evidence of the voter's retaining his qualification.

Voters residing out of the polling district to which the parish belongs wherein their qualification is situated, may vote in another district, on making a claim before the revising barrister.

The ballot of each voter is to consist of a paper showing the names and description of the candidates. Each ballot paper is to have a number printed on the back, and to have attached a counterfoil with the same number printed on the face. At the time of voting, the ballot paper is to be marked on both sides with an official mark, and delivered up to the voter within the polling station, and the number of such voter on the register of voters is to be marked on the counterfoil, and the voter having secretly marked his vote on the paper, and folded it up, so as to conceal his vote, is to place it in a closed box, in the presence of the officer presiding at the polling station, after having shown to him the o ficial mark at the back.

Any ballot paper which has not on its back the official mark, or on which votes are given to more candidates than the voter is entitled to vote for, or on which anything, except the said number on the back is written or marked, by which the voter can be identified, is to be void and not counted.

After the close of the poll the ballot boxes are to be sealed up, so as to prevent the introduction of additional ballot papers, and are to be taken charge of by the returning officer, and that officer, in the presence of such agents, if any, of the candidates as may be in attendance, is to open the ballot boxes, and ascertain the result of the poll by counting the votes given to each candidate, and forthwith to declare to be elected the candidates or candidate to whom the majority of votes have been given, and return their

mmes to the clerk of the crown in Chancery. The decision of the returning officer as to any question arising in respect of any ballet paper is to be final, subject to reversal on petition questioning the election or return.

Where an equality of votes is found to exist between any candidates at an election for a county or borough, and the addition of a vote would entitle any of such candidates to be declared elected, the returning officer, if a registered elector of such county or borough, may give such additional vote, but is not in any other case to be entitled to vote at an election for which he is returning cfcer.

Provisions are contained in the Ballot Act for regulating the veting of any voter who is incapacitated by blindness or other physical cause from voting in the prescribed manner; or if the pall be taken on a Saturday, of any voter being a Jew, or of any illiterate voter.

The returning officer is required, as soon as possible, to give public notice of the result of the election, and of the total number of votes given for each candidate, whether elected or not, in the case of a contest.

By 10 V. e. 21, soldiers during a parliamentary election are no lenger required to remove to the distance of two miles from the place of polling, but must remain in their barracks or quarters. The law for the withdrawal of the military never extended to diers in garrison, or to soldiers entitled to vote at elections; nor 10 the guards in Westminster and Southwark, or to any place of royal residence.

No lord of parliament, or lord lieutenant of a county, has a right to interfere in the election of commoners.

Officers of the revenue, as well as justices and officers appointed under the Metropolitan Police Acts, are expressly prohibited from interfering at elections of members of the House of Commons.

Riots have been frequently determined to make an election void, and in the case of riots, the returning officer can adjourn the poll to the next day, and again then if necessary.

IV.-BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION AT ELECTIONS.

Parliament has at various times attempted to prevent bribery and errupt practices at elections (which are also offences at common law punishable by fine and imprisonment). It has also regulated the form and manner of calling into question any election at which tribery, corruption, or intimidation has been stated to have been resorted to.

By 6 & 7 V. c. 18, any person voting at any parliamentary election who is not in fact the person in whose name he assumes to vote, is liable to be charged with personation before two justices of the peace, and to be committed by them for trial according to law.