In 1858, by 21 & 22 V. c. 78, the committees of both houses are enabled to administer oaths to witnesses in certain cases, so that Le evidence taken before a committee of either house on a private

is available, if desired, before the other house to which the bis referred. For this purpose, by ss. 1 and 2, the committees of the commons on private bills may examine witnesses on oath, and the lords also may examine witnesses on oath, in lieu of such witnesses being, as heretofore, sworn at the bar of the house.

In the commons the speaker has a casting vote in case of an equality of votes; but, in the lords, the speaker's vote is counted with the rest of the house; and in case of an equality of votes the t-contents, or negatives, are considered the majority.

As to the origin of bills: with the crown originates all bills of esty; with the lords, all bills relating to divorces, or restituten in blood or of honours; with the commons all bills relating to the public income and expenditure, and all other measures that a properly come within the class of money bills. Bills affecting regal prerogatives are not usually introduced into either house without the previous consent of the crown. It is considered

nstitutional for one house to take the initiative in any are affecting the privileges of the other. In general it is held that in the lords should originate bills of pains and penalties, or cther measures founded upon oral testimony.

common with courts of law, the houses of parliament can panish all contempt of their authority, or disobedience to their aadates. Each house is armed with power to repress any aggres en upon their rights or any interference with their privileges; but the operation of this power is limited to the session or duration pariament, committals to prison by either being usually termiated by a prorogation or dissolution; but the lords may imprison beyond the end of the session (May on Parl. 71). Either house a delegate to a committee the power of sending for papers, and entering the attendance of necessary witnesses.

Camittees are, first, those of the whole house, which may be fr the special consideration of certain resolutions concerning which ⚫e doubt exists; or the house resolves itself into such committee to der the details of a bill, the principle of which may be disat any or all of its other stages; or there may be committees be fancial purposes, as those of supply, or ways and means. Sercaly, there are select committees chosen by ballot or otherwise for some specific purpose-the numbers composing such bodies dexed twenty or thirty members; occasionally these are deared committees of secrecy.

Stat. 34 & 35 V. c. 83, enacts, that the House of Commons may shinister an oath to the witnesses examined at the bar of the dhouse.

Any committee of the House of Commons may administer an ath to the witnesses examined before such committee.

Any person, examined as aforesaid, who wilfully gives false evidence, shall be liable to the penalties of perjury.

Where any witness to be examined under this act conscientiously objects to take an oath, he may make his solemn affirmation and declaration, which shall be of the same force and effect, and shall entail the same consequences, as an oath taken in the usual form.

When the whole house is in committee, the speaker vacates the chair, the mace is placed under the table, and some other member is called on to preside, who sits in the seat of the senior clerk. For committees of supply of ways and means, there is a chairman who receives a salary.

A conference may be either for the communication of resolutions, or it may be a species of negotiation between the two houses, conducted by managers appointed on both sides, for the purpose of producing concurrence, in cases where mutual consent is necessary, or for the purpose of reconciling differences which may have arisen. If the conference be upon the subject of a bill depending between the two houses, it must be demanded by that house which, at the time of asking the conference, is in possession of the bill. It is the sole privilege of the lords to name the time and place for holding a conference, no matter by which house it may have been demanded. Reasons in writing for the course resolved to be taken are usually furnished to the managers on both sides; in which case it is simply called "a conference." Should this proceeding fail, a "free conference" must be held, which gives an opportunity for the managers individually, and unrestrained by any precise form of argument, to urge such reasons as in their judgment may best tend to influence the house to which they are addressed. A free conference is usually demanded after two conferences have been holden without effect. After one free conference none other but free conferences can be held touching the same subject. At all conferences, the managers on the part of the upper house are seated and wear their hats; those for the commons stand uncovered. The speaker quits the chair of the house during the absence of managers attending a conference.

During the session the House of Commons mostly sits five days weekly for the despatch of business; the House of Lords not so often. By the regulations of 1833 (since altered), the commons agreed to meet every day except Saturday, at 12 o'clock, for private business and petitions, and to sit till three, unless the business should sooner be disposed of. At this early meeting twenty members instead of forty to form a house; and a quarter past five o'clock, instead of four, was fixed for the house assembling in the evening. It was also resolved that a select committee should in future be appointed at the commencement of each session to classify all petitions presented to the house, and to order the printing of such of them at length, or in abstract, as appeared to them to

require it. Measures were also adopted for obtaining and publishing authentic lists of divisions.

Discussions generally arise on a motion being made by a member, seconded by another, and then put from the chair in the shape of a question; on each of these every member is entitled to be heard once, but he may rise again to explain, and the member who criginates the motion is entitled to a reply. In committee the restrictions on speaking are removed.

When a motion has been made upon which the house is unwilling to come to a vote, there are formal modes of avoiding a decision; among which are, "passing to the other orders," or moving the "previous question." The former means that the house should take no further notice of the matter then introduced, but, casting it aside, proceed to other business appointed for that day; the atter, that the vote be previously taken as to the expediency of their coming to any decision on the question raised. If the previous question be carried, the motion it is meant to frustrate is only got nd of for the time; whereas a direct negative to the motion would be a proscription of it for the remainder of the session, as well as a denial of its principle.

Moving that a bill be read this day six months," that is, after a prorogation has intervened, by which every bill is dropped, is a mode of throwing out a distasteful measure without coming to an express declaration upon its principle.

Notice is sometimes given of a "call of the house;" this is meant to ensure a full attendance of members, as those absent without leave of the house, or just cause, are liable to be fined.

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The rules of order in the House of Lords differ in some particulars from those observed in the Commons. In debate, those who speak address the whole house and not the chairman. The peer who sits on the woolsack or in the chair of committees has no duties to perform during the deliberations of the house, excepting to put the question." He is not the judge or guardian of order. If everal peers rise together, the house decides who shall first be heard. The speaker or deputy speaker of the lords is not disqualified ex officio from taking a part in the debate.

VI. ROYAL ASSENT.

The roval assent is given either in person or by commission. When a bill has received the royal assent in either of these ways, it becomes a statute, or act of parliament, and is enrolled in the Court of Chancery and printed by the Queen's printer for public distribution. The royal assent is given in the lords, the commons being present at the bar, to which they are summoned by the Black Rod. It seldom happens that the assent is given in person, unless it be at the close of the session, when the Queen usually attends to

prorogue parliament, and, seated on the throne, robed and crowned signifies her pleasure what bills shall become acts, through th clerk of parliament.

By legal fiction, all the acts passed in one session are held to b only so many chapters, that comprise one statute, and the entir session to only form one day; in consequence an act of parliamen was held to operate from the day on which parliament assembled at whatever period of the session it passed. But this is remedie by the 33 G.3, c. 13, by which all acts are directed to commenc from the date of the royal assent, unless some other period expressly mentioned in the act.

An adjournment is the discontinuance of sitting from one day t another during the session.

Prorogation is an act of royal authority, and is a discontinuang of parliament from session to session. After prorogation, all bill begun, and not completed, must, if wished for, be resumed afres in the next session; but, after adjournment, the business of th house is taken up in the state in which it was left.

A dissolution is the ending or civil death of the parliament, an may happen in two ways:-1. By the will of the Queen, expresse either in person, by commission, or proclamation. 2. Parliame may expire by length of duration. The utmost duration of th same parliament, under 6 W. & M. c. 2, was three years; aft the expiration of which, reckoning from the return of the fir summons, the parliament was to have no longer continuance. Bu by 1 G. 1, st. 2, c. 38, this term has been extended to seven year

CHAPTER VII.

Rights of the People.

THE people may be relatively considered that great portion of t community separate from its government; and having briefly sta the origin and powers of the ruling authorities, we shall n advert to those protective measures by which society is shiel from the oppression and encroachments of the governing authori The chief securities by which the rights of the people recognized are Magna Charta, the Coronation Oath, the Petitior Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights, and the Ac Settlement. With the exception of the last, the Bill of Right the most recent declaration in favour of public liberty; and, c prising, as it does, a distinct affirmation of all those points which the people and their rulers had been formerly divided may now be considered the great constitutional act by which national rights and immunities are prescribed and guaranteed. The Bill of Rights, or declaration delivered by the lords

commons to the Prince and Princess of Orange, February 13th, 16:9, and afterwards enacted in parliament, and incorporated in the statute law of the realm, declares

That the pretended power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by regal authority, without the consent of parliament, is illezal.

That levying money for the use of the crown by pretence of prerogative, without grant of parliament, for longer time, or in other manner, than the same is or shall be granted, is illegal.

That it is the right of the subject to petition the Queen, and all commitments and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal.

That the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, without the consent of parliament, is against kr.

That subjects who are Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their condition, and as allowed by law.

That elections of members of parliament ought to be free.

That the freedom of speech and debate, and proceedings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of parliament.

That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

That jurors ought to be duly empannelled and returned, and jurors who sit upon men accused of high treason ought to be free

hobiers.

That all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures of particular persons before conviction are illegal and void.

And, for redress of grievances and amendment of the laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently.

The claims set forth in this declaration are affirmed to be the indubitable rights and liberties of the people, and are again asserted the Act of Settlement, which limited the crown to the present Koyal family. Some new provisions were also added, for better uring our rights and immunities, which the statute declares *be "the birthright of the people of England," according to the ancient doctrine of the common law.

The guarantee of civil liberties next in importance is the Habeas Corpus Act, the 16 C. 2, c. 10, amended by 31 C. 2, c. 2. By this act, if any person be imprisoned by the order of any court, or the Queen herself, he may have a writ of habeas corpus to bring him before the court of Queen's Bench, or the Common Pleas, who shall determine whether the cause of his committal be just. As this act extends only to committals in criminal cases, the 53 Geo. 3, €10, has extended the remedies it gives to miscellaneous causes of confinement other than criminal offences, and the power of ising the writ to all the judges. But by 25 & 26 V. c. 20, no writ of habeas corpus can issue out of England from any judge or court of justice into any colony or foreign dominion of the crown,