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the corona are of such varying brightness that it will be impossible to obtain all the details with a single exposure. For the spectroscopic work it is also recommended that isochromatic plates be employed, with special reference to the distribution of the material which gives the green line 1474 Kirchoff. Mr. Lockyer proposes to use an objective prism, so as to obtain monochromatic images of the corona, that is, rings corresponding to each elementary radiation of the coronal light. This method will not only give the spectrum of the corona, but the distribution of each spectrum line over the whole of it. The problem of the "reversing layer" is also wanting definite solution, and it is pointed out that instantaneous photographs may settle the question once for all. M. Pluvinel also points out the importance of noting the presence or absence of the hydrocarbon bands suspected by Tacchini in 1883, as this observation may throw further light on the analogy between the corona and the tails of comets.

Photometric observations should also be secured, and the polariscope should be employed to determine the proportion of polarized light in various parts of the corona.

NOVA AURIGE.-Prof. Barnard has recently made some measures of the position of Nova Auriga, with a view to detecting proper motion. The two comparison stars selected were the stars E and F in Mr. Burnham's previous list of comparison stars. The results are stated thus (Ast. Nach. No. 3143):"The measures with F come out identical with Mr. Burnham's during February, but those with E seem to show some sort of motion in distance and possibly in angle. From the position of the comparison star this can hardly be due to parallax. It is possible, though, if the discrepancy is a real displacement, that it is due to orbital motion, the orbit being so situated as to show no motion with reference to F. The difference is not sufficiently great, considering the distance, to prove anything." Prof. Barnard further remarks that although the Nova presented no nebulosity at its first appearance, it has always appeared as an undoubted planetary nebula since he observed it on August 19. Estimates of magnitude in the present condition of the Nova will depend greatly upon the telescope and inagnifying power employed. Since August the nucleus has become fainter, while the light as a whole has remained essentially constant.

"ASTRONOMICAL JOURNAL" PRIZES. "A gentleman earnestly interested in the development and progress of astronomy in his native land has authorized the editor of the Astronomical Journal to offer two prizes, for resident citizens of the United States" (Ast. Jour. No. 284). The prizes will either take the form of money or of gold medals, one being of the value of two hundred dollars and the other of four hundred dollars. In the first instance the prizes will be awarded for observations tending to advance our knowledge of cometary orbits, one being for the best series of measurements of the positions of comets during the year ending March 31, 1894, and the other for the best discussion of the path of a periodic comet, with due regard to its perturbations. With regard to the first, astronomers who hope to gain the prize must frequently be at work until sunrise, as special value will be attached to observations made at inconvenient hours.

GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.

THE name Ibea, contracted from the initials of the Imperial British East African Company to designate their territory on the east coast of Africa, has acquired a certain amount of currency, and although open to philological criticism is practically convenient. On the same principle the great Dutch possessions in the East Indies have been termed Noi (Nederlandsch Ost Indie), and Mr. Ravenstein has suggested a similar abbreviation for the German East African territory (Deutsch Ost Afrika), only he would combine the initials with a Swahili affix or suffix signifying "land," and make it either Udoa, or Doani. The cumbrousness of using many words to specify a well-defined region seems to justify a somewhat bolder coinage of new names in geography than has hitherto been customary.

THE Mouvement Geographique publishes a sketch map of the Stanley Falls district of the Congo, compiled from the compassbearings of M. Page, one of the members of the disastrous Hodister expedition. Besides Stanley, Lieutenant Gleerup and Dr. Oscar Lenz are the only other authorities on this stretch of the river. Special information is given regarding the three groups of rapids which occur between Stanley Falls

station and Kibonge. The cataract of Mandombe above Stalk Falls is composed of a succession of falls from six to ten high and numerous rapids, but local canoe-men are able take boats through in four or five hours. Three hours of fre navigation leads to the rapids of Mamanga, where the rive: barred from bank to bank by a ridge of rock about twelve te high, and followed by rapids and other smaller falls nece tating a portage. Three and a half hours of free navigat lead to Basundu, the last cataract, which canoes are atk pass in about three hours after being lightened.

THE Antarctic whaling fleet, the dispatch of which was not in vol. xlvi. p. 477, has been reported from the Falkland Island The Balaena, which has the most complete scientific equipme arrived at Port Stanley at the end of November, the Athe December 8, the Diana on December II. The fourth vex the Polar Star, was spoken off the Plate on November 16. 7. telegram from Monte Video reports all well, and a prelimin notice of the scientific observations will probably follow mail.

IN a communication to the Paris Geographical Society Venukoff calls attention to the fact that although the exter Government drainage works have almost obliterated the Fmarshes from the valley of the Pripet, the most recent Russian atlases continue to represent these marshes as they we thirty years ago. Now their site is largely forest and meaty

land.

TRAVELS IN BORNEO.

MR. CHARLES HOSE'S paper on "A Journey #f

Baram River to Mount Dulit and the Highla Borneo," read to the Royal Geographical Society on Ma evening, was a pleasant variety in the succession of Afr papers which has formed the staple of the Society's progra 1or the session.

The Baram River runs on the whole northward thr eastern Sarawak, reaching the sea in 4° 37′ 15′′ N, 115 59' 30" E. Its mouth is complicated by a series of sand shifting with the change of the monsoons. The river is in "2" very deep, and is navigated by a fleet of Government stear The bordering land is low and swampy or covered with until Claudetown, about sixty miles from the mouth, is react There the ground rises, and a prosperous trading town has established by Chinese merchants. At Long Mari, abou miles further up, there are great rapids which can only be pa with difficulty, and gorges of considerable depth occur at vals further up the stream. The journey to Mount Dut made up the Linjar, a large tributary of the Baram people on the banks of this river have a peculiar custom ce ing dead bodies in their houses encased in ornamental of interesting particulars regarding their burial customs, their for three months before burial; and Mr. Hose gave some plicated subdivisions of the world of the dead, and their of interchanging messages with departed friends. At the of canoe navigation the Sibop tribe hunt various species monkeys with the blowpipe, the valuable commodity bez intestinal calculi known as Bezoar stones, which are grea demand by Chinese apothecaries.

The ascent of Mount Dulit was commenced on Sepu 21, when a hut was built at the height of 2000 feet, and a cut through the thorny scrub to 4000 feet, near which hut was built. Several days were spent here collecting history specimens, many of which were species new to s amongst the smaller quadrupeds Hemigale hosei, and birds Calyptomena hosei and Mesobucca eximius may be tioned. A cave some distance higher was found with tobacco growing at its mouth and several remarkable ferm with fronds 14 feet long; but except for bats and a s snake, the cave was untenanted. The fauna of Moun closely resembled that of Kina Balu, showing the wi distribution in the highlands of Borneo of Himalayan The flat moss-clad summit of Mount Dulit was found to aneroid, 5090 feet; and there was a magnificent view of ranges, the position of a number of peaks in which wa Some natives reported having heard a tiger roaring in the bourhood, but Mr. Hose found the sound to proceed gigantic toad, measuring 14 inches round the body. close of the paper Dr. Bowdler Sharpe F R.S.. pointe great importance of Mr. Hose's results in their bear geographical distribution.

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BACILLI IN BUTTER.

HE fact that milk affords a particularly suitable medium for the growth and multiplication of most micro organisms, as rightly led to its being regarded as a dangerous vehicle for je propagation of disease. On the Continent the practice of piling all milk before use, and so destroying any pathogenic icroues which may be present, is almost universal, and recently number of special pieces of apparatus have been devised for busehold use, ensuring the efficient so-called "pasteurization" milk. In England, however, we but rarely boil our milk in ite of outbreaks of diphtheria and typhoid fever having been st infrequently traced to a particular milk supply. In a paper Cnopf on the bacterial contents of milk it is stated, that on e occasion out of every thirteen samples of milk supplied to tris one was found to contain tubercle bacilli, whilst it is well own that the germs of typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, anthrax,

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thrive readily in this medium. But although milk has been ade the subject of much careful experimental investigation, mparatively little is known of the microbial condition of butter. eim has shown that cholera bacilli purposely rubbed into tter could be demonstrated after thirty-two days, whilst phoid bacilli similarly introduced were found after three weeks, d tubercle bacilli after the lapse of a month, although asperini discovered the latter in butter even after 120 days. aite recently Lafar has published a paper, Bacteriologische udien über Butter" in the Archiv für Hygiene, in which he s recorded his investigations on the micro-organisms found in inich butter. These experiments are instructive as exhibiting fitness of butter to support a large number of bacteria, and is furnish an interesting supplement to what is already known acerning the longevity of pathogenic microbes in this medium. e samples examined were prepared from fresh cream and re investigated as soon as possible after the butter was made. was found that the number of microbes differed according as portion for experiment was taken from the outside or m the interior of the piece of butter. Thus in one tance whilst one gram from the centre of the pat tained 2,465,555, on the outside in the same quantity as ay as 47,250,000 micro-organisms were found. Taking the rage of a number of examinations, it was estimated that the rior of a lump of butter possessed from 10 to 20 millions of teria in a single gram. Lafar is inclined to regard this as under rather than an over-statement of the number, inasch as there are always probably present a certain proportion nicrobes which will not develop at the ordinary temperature, on the gelatine-peptone medium usually employed. He phically puts it that, in some cases it is conceivable that the aber of organisms swallowed with a moderately-sized slice of ad and butter may exceed that of the whole population of ope! Lafar found that butter kept in a refrigerator, with a perature of between o° to +1° C. at first (after five days) wed a marked reduction in the number of bacteria, but that urther diminution took place, although the sample was kept month at this temperature. Samples kept at from 12° to C. exhibited a marked increase in the number of micronisms, a rise from 6 to 35 millions being observed in the se of nine days, whilst when placed in the incubator (35° C.) four days the bacteria had fallen from 25 to 10 millions, after thirty-four days only 5 per cent. of the original Der present were discoverable. Experiments were also eto ascertain what was the bacterial effect of adding salt tter kept in a refrigerator. It was found that although the pers were thereby considerably reduced, that yet, even when ch as 10 per cent. of salt was added, the complete action ofthe bacteria was not accomplished. On examining, ver, gelatine-plates prepared from these samples, it was ained that the organisms present consisted almost entirely of e cultivation of one particular microbe, which was aptly entirely unaffected by the addition of salt, and had and multiplied to the exclusion of nearly all the other ia originally present. When samples similarly salted were I in the incubator (35° C.) the result was rather different, ilst there was more apparent connection between the tion of salt added and the diminution in the number of ia, more varieties of micro-organisms were found on the e-plates. But in this case, also, the germicidal effect ced was not proportional to the increase in the amount . Samples of artificial butter were also examined, and nvariably found to be much poorer in bacteria than ordi

nary butter. Thus, whilst the smallest number found in one gram was 747,059, in real butter considerably over two million microbes was the minimum. Two varieties of bacilli have been isolated and described, which were found very constantly present in butter throughout these investigations. They are beautifully illustrated and shown in coloured plates as individual organisms and colonies at the end of the paper. Lafar purposes continuing his investigations, and it is to be hoped that the examination of butter for pathogenic micro-organisms, about which so little is known, will form an important feature in any further researches he may undertake. GRACE C. FRANKLAND.

THE OCCURRENCE OF NATIVE ZIRCONIA (BADDELEYITE).

THE discovery of native zirconia was first made public in my letter to NATURE (vol. xlvi. p. 620) in October last; at the same time I gave characters sufficient for the recognition of the new mineral, and suggested the name Baddeleyite, in honour of Mr. Joseph Baddeley who had brought the specimen with other dense minerals from Rakwana in Ceylon. As there was only a single fragment of what at first sight seemed a hopelessly imperfect crystal, the determination of all the important characters without appreciable injury of the specimen was a task of an attractive kind: the technical details of the investigation (including quantitative chemical analyses) and the line of argument by which definite results were evolved from the observations, were communicated to the Mineralogical Society at the meeting held on October 25 (NATURE, vol. xlvii. p. 70), and crystals of hydrous zirconium oxychloride prepared by identical methods from Baddeleyite and artificial zirconia, respectively, were exhibited for comparison. Having regard to the unexpected result of the chemical examination and the difference of the characters of Baddeleyite from those of artificially prepared crystals of zirconia, every care had been taken to get results as accurate as the material itself would admit of. Of course it was hoped that the occurrence of native zirconia, once established, would soon be noticed elsewhere; and in fact, I hear this morning (January 3) from Dr. Hussak of the Geological Survey of Brazil, that flawless crystals of zirconia are actually met with in the south of São Paulo as an accessory constituent of an augitic rock described under the name of Jacupirangite by my friend Mr. O. A. Derby.

The Brazilian mineral had three or four years ago been regarded by Dr. Hussak (who had then only a small amount of material for examination) as probably orthite (silicate of cerium, iron, &c.), a mineral with which it agrees in its more obvious external characters, and it was mentioned later under that name in Mr. Derby's description of the Jacupirangite; but more recently Dr. Hussak, on isolating a score of flawless crystals from the decomposed rock, recognized the distinctness of the mineral fron orthite, determined the geometrical and physical characters of the crystals, and decided from a chemical examination that the material was a tantalo-niobate of probably some member of the yttrium-cerium group: these results were published in the Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, 1892, Band II. p. 142, immediately after my announcement of the occurrence of native zirconia in Ceylon had been sent for publication, but they had been forwarded from Brazil as early as the month of June. Dr. Hussak now informs me that the Brazilian mineral, which had been sent to Sweden for a complete quantitative examination, has been determined by Prof. Blömstrand to be almost pure zirconia.

As regards crystalline form, the parametral elements obtained by myself for Baddeleyite, and announced at the meeting of October 25; agree in a very satisfactory way with those determined by Dr. Hussak for the Brazilian mineral, while as regards optical characters, the two descriptions are practically identical. The only important deviation of external character is in the specific gravity; that of Baddeleyite is 6'025, that of selected crystals of the Brazilian mineral is 5'006.

Now it seems almost impossible that the specific gravity of crystals of a simple oxide presenting otherwise identical characters can vary to this extent, and the explanation of all the difficulty will probably be found to be that Dr. Hussak's specimens really belong to two distinct minerals; that while the crystalline form and optical characters were determined from the one (zirconia), the specific gravity and the chemical composition

were originally determined from the other (yttrium tantalate). In fact, it was stated in my former communication that the Baddeleyite of Ceylon is itself associated with such a chemical compound; and I may add that this associated mineral was there designated without the mention of a species-name because it had been found to have a specific gravity (4′9) far below the inferior limit (55) hitherto observed in the case of undoubted Yttrotantalite: it was intended to determine later whether or not the lowness of the specific gravity was accompanied by a difference in the proportion of the chemical constituents; further, the similarity of aspect of the zirconia and yttrium tantalate of Ceylon is such that a confusion of the two would be easy. In this way the discrepancy of the chemical results and the complete accuracy of the observations of Dr. Hussak, whose reputation stands so high in the annals of mineralogical science, would be found consistent with each other.

There remains the inconvenience that two names have been suggested for the same mineral; but according to the rules of nomenclature formulated by Dana (rule 13d) the name of Baddeleyite has the prior claim. I may add that the name Brazilite was in use eight years ago, commercially at least, for the specification of an oil-bearing rock found in the neighbourhood of Bahia. L. FLETCHER.

GAS POWER FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTING.

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AT the ordinary meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers on Tuesday, January 10, an interesting paper on GasPower for Electric Lighting was read by Mr. J. Emerson Dowson. The author stated that in Great Britain alone gas-engines had been sold for electric lighting, exceeding in the aggregate 7000 horse-power, and that in Germany engines were used for about 1100 arc and 90,000 glowlamps. It was, however, only within the last few years that gas-engines of large size had been before the world in a practical form. The varying load-factor in central stations was a serious trouble, and the author hoped to show that much of the present loss, due to fuel, water, and wages, would be avoided if gas-power were used instead of steam-power.

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Special reference was made to the central-station at Dessau, belonging to the German Continental Gas Company. station was opened in 1886 with two 60 horse-power, one 30 horse-power, and one 8 horse-power (effective) engines, worked with town-gas, and all the dynamos were driven by belting and counter-shafts. In 1891 considerable alterations were made. One 60 horse-power engine, with its belting and counter-shaft, was retained, and one of 120 horse power introduced, coupled direct to its dynamo. The speed of the engine and coupled dynamo was 145 revolutions per minute, and the consumption of town-gas was equal to 39 cubic feet per kilowatt. Formerly, without accumulators, it was thought necessary to adjust the size of the engines to the supply, so that they should always be worked to their full extent. It had, however, been found that a limited supply could more advantageously be furnished entirely from accumulators. In spite of the loss of about 21 per cent. in the accumulators, large engines worked more profitably in parallel than smaller ones supplying direct without accumulators. Since February, 1889, the Municipality of Schwabing, a suburb of Munich, had used an Otto engine worked with Dowson gas for 10 arc- and 300 glow-lamps. The load was variable, but with an average output of 22.5 kilowatts per hour the fuel-consumption was 3.3 lbs. per kilowatt. town of Morecambe was lighted by nine arc-lamps and glowlamps, equal to 1600 of eight candle-power each, the dynamos being driven by Stockport gas-engines worked with Dowson gas. With an output of only 1155 kilowatts per week the consumption of fuel was 2.58 lbs., and the cost of the gas, including wages and fuel, was d. per kilowatt delivered.

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the château of Mr. Say, at Longpont, in the South of France, there were 650 glow-lamps and one arc-lamp, supplied by a dynamo driven by a Crossley engine worked with Dowson gas. The consumption of fuel was 1'2 lb. per indicated horse-power, and 27 lbs. per kilowatt per hour.

It was believed that the late Sir William Siemens first drew attention to the fact, that when illuminating-gas was burnt in a gas-engine to drive a dynamo, much more light was produced electrically than could be produced by burning the same quantity of gas in burners in the usual way. Latterly the consumption of gas per horse power in gas-engines had been reduced, and the

ratio was at the present time about 20 to 1 in favour of convent the gas into an arc-light, by means of a gas-engine. The a had collected data from various sources, as to the consumption ordinary town-gas by engines supplying electric light with : without accumulators. The average of all the returns, *... engines under varying loads and without accumulators. about 47 cubic feet per kilowatt-hour; when accuma's were used, the consumption of gas was less, because engines then worked under a full load. With 475 feet per kilowatt, and 55 watts per 16 candle-power, one of that power required only 2·6 cubic feet per hour; wher a standard Argand burner required 5 cubic feet per hour. this comparison, it was assumed that the glow-lamps and g burners were in good order, but under ordinary working ditions they did not maintain so high a duty.

The question of load-factor was a serious one with any of engine, but with gas-engines the loss was much less with steam-engines. When a gas-engine was stopped consumption of fuel stopped also, and there was no fur to maintain, nor was there any water to boil at starting. the same time, it was desirable that the gas-engine shop! worked as much as possible under a full load, and in respect the experience at Dessau was generally confirme A central-station was worked under trying conditions, the London district there was only a full outpat of c during from three to five hours in every twenty-four; mor about 60 per cent. of the total output was required during short period. In practice, this meant that in a station** the current was supplied without accumulators, the were run at a reduced speed during a portion of the time, at other times some of them were stopped altogether; b. had to be ready to work in the evening, and occasionally m 2 day-time, when there was fog. Generally, it might be a that the average consumption was more than 6 pounds kilowatt where accumulators were used, and about 9: pounds where they were not used. In any case, with the possible arrangement of steam-power, there must be a amount of fuel consumed which did no useful work; for, m if some of the fires were drawn, they had to be re-lightedthe large quantity of water which had cooled during the tim standing must be re-heated.

The author believed that the solution of the difficulty wa be found in the use of gas-plant instead of steam-plant. large gas-engine, one brake horse-power per hour cat obtained with a consumption of about 1 lb. of anthrack 1 lb. of coke; whereas the consumption of coal wi steam engines used for central-stations, must be taken 24 lbs. per brake horse-power, when working under a A saving of not less than 50 per cent. could therefore be in stations where the engines were fully loaded; and there were great fluctuations in the output, the loss of f boilers not used, or only partly used, could be almost avoided. For a maximum of 400 kilowatts, there w three gas-generators, each capable of supplying one the maximum required. The production of gas could or lowered in several ways, and the working of each ge could be stopped immediately by shutting off its steam s Supposing, therefore, that all three generators were v at their maximum rate, and a gradual reduction was re this could easily be effected; and when the production or two generators could be dispensed with their c was at once stopped. The third generator could ther at work, and its production adjusted to suit the minis sumption required. A gas-generator had a small grat compared with that of a boiler, and much less cooling it contained no water, and required no chimney-drag generator of the size referred to lost only 6 to 8 los re whilst standing. If an average of only 40 per cent. of the mum power were required for twenty-one hours, it was to letting two of the generators stand for that period, 8 lbs. each per hour that meant a total loss of only compared with the much greater waste when steam-pow used. As the use of large engines, driven with gas, was of recent date, the author proceeded to desc gas-plant used, and gave the results of engines works larly with Dowson gas, under the usual conditions in factories. He also gave the results of brake-tes with several engines of large size, and reproduced a diagrams taken from engines of different makers. admirable results had undoubtedly been obtained from

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The following was a summary of the points urged by the thor:

1.-When town-gas was used for driving the engines of an ectrical station, the consumption was about 50 per cent. less an the volume of gas required to give the same amount of light ordinary burners.

2.-When town-gas was used, neither boiler nor firemen re required, and there were no ashes to remove; less space s needed; no accumulators were required, except such as ght be necessary to equalize the load of the engines and to ovide for a small amount of storage. The engines could be rked in the most crowded districts, close to where the lights re required, and where boilers were not allowed. 3.-When generator-gas was used, the consumption of fuel der a full load would be at least 50 per cent. less than with am-power, and the loss due to steam boilers not being fully rked could be almost entirely avoided.

UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.

CAMBRIDGE. We regret to hear that Professor Cayley has en suffering from serious illness, and that he is in consequence able to give this term his advertised course of lectures in Pure thematics.

L. Cobbett, M. A., M.B., of Trinity College, has been apinted Demonstrator of Pathology in the place of Dr. E. Lloyd nes, who has resigned the office.

Mr. F. Darwin, Deputy Professor of Botany, announces a ecial course of lectures in the Chemical Physiology of Plants, be given by Mr. Acton, of St. John's College, on Tuesdays the present Lent Term.

Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, F. R. S., announces a second course of tures in Geography, to be given in the Easter Term. Mr. A. E. Shipley has been appointed an additional member the Special Board for Biology and Geology.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

Fournal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 3rd es, vol. iii. pt. 4.-Cottage sanitation (illustrated), by H. Lean Wilson, a paper prepared under the supervision Dr. Spottiswoode Cameron and T. Pridgin Teale, F.R.S. ontains a discussion of the principal sanitary defects, which most likely to be found in the houses of agricultural urers, with valuable suggestions and remedies. The object ed at is "to put the whole country, and every house in the ntry, into such a condition that if the epidemic (cholera) uld break out it would have no chance of spreading."-Field eriments on the fixation of free nitrogen, by James Mason, es an account of the enriching of some plots of poor land on Oxford clay at Eynsham by the growth of two leguminous s in succession. The two crops chosen were beans and d clovers. So far as they go the results are striking. Prior 588 the land had never been cultivated or received any are. Brought into tillage in that year two plots produced cwts. and 9 cwts. per acre of barley and oats respectively, included, an excessively low return. In the autumn of the plots were treated with 20 cwts. of basic slag per acre, he subsoil with the same amount. Beans in the following yielded an average of 46 bushels and 23 cwts. straw per In 1890 mixed clovers gave a yield of 28 cwts. cre as the average of the two plots, and in 1891 a crop of tons clover-hay was obtained. Potatoes were grown upon lots last year, and gave an average yield of eight tons per Excepting the basic slag, no manure of any kind had ever applied to the plots. The experiments are being continued xtended.-Wild birds, useful and injurious (illustrated), by Archibald.-Utilization of straw as food for stock, by h Darby. Showing methods of using chaffed straw as a y for the deficient hay crop of last summer, with records evious experiences under similar circumstances.-Yew ning, y Mr. E. P. Squarey, Mr. Charles Whitehead, Mr. arruthers, F.R.S., and Dr. Munro. But few definite con

clusions can be arrived at, owing to the conflicting nature of the information available. It appears, however, (1) that both the male and female yews are poisonous; (2) the poisonous alkaloid (or alkaloids) exists chiefly in the leaves and in the seeds; (3) the fleshy part of the fruit is harmless, or nearly so; (4) the amount of poisonous alkaloid in the leaves varies considerably with individual trees, and perhaps with the season of the year. Dr. Munro contributes a review of the chemical work done upon taxine, the only alkaloid in yew which has been investigated; very little is known with certainty about it, either as to its chemical nature or its physiological action. As Dr. Munro suggests, "yew leaves merit exhaustive chemical examination." -Besides the official reports, there are several short articles, including one upon the ferments of milk, abridged by Dr. Munro from Prof. H. W. Conn's pamphlet on the subject, issued last summer; also a paper upon the decline of wheat-growing in Engiand, by the editor.

American Journal of Science, January.—The age of the earth, by Clarence King. This paper contains an application of Lord Kelvin's reasoning from probable rates of refrigeration to the determination of the earth's age, aided by Dr. Carl Barus's recent work in geological physics, especially his determination of the latent heat of fusion, specific heats melted and solid, and the volume expansion between the melted and solid state, of the rock diabase. Thermal considerations have shown that with a given initial excess of temperature of the earth over surrounding space, and an assigned value for rock conductivity, it is possible to determine the curve of temperature from the earth's centre to its surface. It appears that for an initial temperature of 2000° C., the initial maximum temperature must still extend uniformly from the centre to within a few hundred miles of the surface for any admissible value of the age. But since the pressures increase steadily as we proceed towards the centre, there must be a point at which their effect outweighs that of the temperature, and the material, though very hot, remains in the solid state. Now on the data supplied by Barus's researches it is possible to state what temperatures are necessary to keep a certain representative species of rock in the fluid state at successive points within the earth. The amount of possible liquid layer is limited by the facts of tidal rigidity, which fix the maximum admissible temperature at 1950 and the age at 24 × 10 years. Lower values are excluded by the gradient of temperature observed on proceeding downwards from the surface. This value, twenty-four million years, agrees fairly well with the age assigned by Helmholtz and Kelvin to It is also concluded that the earth never was all liquid, that the original liquid layer did not exceed 53 miles, and that the spheroidal shape is due to the plasticity of the lithosphere as manifested under the action of verv slowly applied forces.—Tertiary geology of Calvert Cliffs, Maryland, by Gilbert D. Harris." Anglesite" associated with boleite, by F. A. Genth.-Preliminary account of the iced-bar base apparatus of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, by R. S. Woodward. -Some experiments with an artificial geyser, by J. C. Graham. -Observations of the Andromed meteors of November 23 and 27, 1892, by H. A. Newton.-Preliminary notice of a meteoric stone seen to fall at Bath, South Dakota, by A. E. Foote.-New Cretaceous bird allied to Hesperornis, by O. C. Marsh.-Skull and brain of Claosaurus, by O. C.

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Marsh.

THE Botanical Gazette for October contains an interesting article by Mr. H. L. Russell on the bacterial investigation of the sea and its floor. The author has had the opportunity of carrying on bacteriological observations in sea water, both from the Bay of Naples and from the coast of Massachusetts. He finds micro-organisms invariably present in sea water, though not in such large numbers as in fresh water, even at a great distance from the shore, and to a depth of 3200 feet; and a larger number in the slime at the bottom than in the water itself. Some marine forms are cosmopolitan, and the bacteria that are so universally present in sea-water and mud seem to be quite peculiar to this habitat.—Mr. E. L. Berthoud describes the mode in which the geographical distribution of some plants has been greatly extended by the agency of the buffalo.-In the number for November Prof. Underwood gives a report of the proceedings of the International Botanical Congress lately held at Genoa.-Mr. G. W. Martin contributes an account of the development of the flower and embryo-sac in Solidago and Aster.

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bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society, vol. ii. No. 2, November 1892.-This number practically consists of one paper, and that a very interesting one, by Dr. Emory McClintock, "On the Non-Euclidian Geometry," a subject which has been more than once brought before our readers. In vol. viii. (1873) appeared Clifford's translation of Riemann's Habilitationsschrift ueber die Hypothesen welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen" (1854). In 1883 this geometry was considered in Cayley's British Association address, and quite recently (February 25, 1892) in a translation of Poincaré's "Revue Generale des Sciences." "The chief lesson to be obtained from ali non-euclidian diversions is that the distinguishing mark of euclidian geometry is fixity of distancemeasurement, by which alone it is possible to draw the same figure upon different scales. That the same figure may be drawn upon different scales might well be laid down as the axiom necessary and sufficient to distingui-h euclidian from.noneuclidian geometry." To this is appended a footnote which says that this is "referred to as the axiom of similars' by Sir Ricard (sic) Ball in the article 'Measurement' of the "Encycl. Brit." A short article follows on the new logarithmic tables of J. de Mendizábal-Tamborrel (Paris, Hermann, 1891). In addition there are the usual "Notes," but no list of publications.

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No. 3, December 1892.-This number contains a careful criticism of Ball's "Mathematical Recreations," with suggestions and discussions by Prof J. E. Oliver of Ithaca, New York, and an account of Dr. Julius Bauschinger's "Zweites Munchener Sternverzeichniss, enthaltend die mittleren Oerter von 18,200 Sternen für das Aequinoc'ium, 1880," by Prof. T. H. Safford. "Notes" and "New Publications" follow.

Wiedemann's Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 12.-On the temperature coefficient of the electrical resi-tance of mercury and on the mercury resistances of the Imperial Institution, by D. Kreichgauer and W. Jaeger. The coefficient was measured in the case of the copies of standard resistances already described. The formula obtained for the resistance we at temperature by two independent methods was

W2 = W2 (I + 0·000875 +0'00000125°) -Generation of electricity by friction of gases against metals, by K. Wesendonck.-On galvanic polarization at small electrodes, by F. Richarz.- Electric oscillations in wires, direct measurement of the moving wave, by Kr. Birkeland. The oscillations were produced in two copper wires running parallel to each other at a distance of Socm. They were 30m. long, and ended in one direction in brass plates 40cm. square, facing two similar plates connected with the terminals of the spark gap of a powerful induction coil. The potentials along the wire when the coil was working were determined by measuring the length of the sparks crossing between the knobs of a spark micrometer, one of them being connected with the wire by a sliding contact, the other leading through a telephone to earth. Statical effects on the telephone were made inappreciable by laying a thread moistened with dilute sulphuric acid across the wires near the "collector" plates. Under these circumstances the passage of sparks was immediately indicated by the telephone, and their length could be measured down to 0'0005min.-Determination of dielectric constants by means of the differential inductor, by Oscar Werner.-Measurement of resistances by means of the telephone, by Max Wien.-Diffusion of light by rough surfaces, by Christian Wiener. Experiments made on cast gypsum show that Lambert's law of diffusion, according to which the brightness of a surface is independent of the angle from which it is seen, is not strictly correct. The brightness at the edge of a round -urface is o'6 times that given by his law. In the vicinity of reflection points the brightness is greater, and at the greate t brightness the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of reflection.-A unit for measuring inten-ity of sensation, by the same.

On internal friction of sold bodie, especially metals, by W. Voigt.-Measurement of the coefficient of diffusion of liquids, by F. Niemoeller. Absolute compressi ility of mercury, by G de Meiz.-Propagation of energy through the ether, by G. Helm.-On the utilization and action of the telephone in electrical null methods; reply to Hr. Winkelmann, by E. Cohn.-On the solution of sodium silicates, and influence of time upon their constitution, by F. Kohlrau ch.-Behaviour of polarized light in refraction, by G. Quincke.-On a mercury arc light, by L. Arons.

Royal

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.

LONDON.

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Meteorological Society, December C. Theodore Williams, President, in the chair.-The fol papers were read :- Moving anticyclones in the Southern He sphere, by Mr. H. C. Russell, F. R.S., Government As mer, New South Wales. The author describes the results aft practical study of the daily weather charts for Australasia, states that the leading fact brought out is that the weatherst of 20 S. latitude is the product of a series of rapidly m anticyclones, which follow one another with remarkabler İ larity, and are the great controlling force in determining weather. These anticyclones are more numerous in s than in winter, the average number for the year being They usually take seven or eight days to travel across Aust in summer, and nine or ten days in winter; the average rate of translation being 400 miles. The shape of the antige appears to undergo some modification as it nears the east c The winds on the north side of the anti-cyclone are strong as those on the south side, and the intensity of the wes is in proportion to the difference in pressure between the cyclone and the V-depression, but the relation of the press varies frequently before the wind responds, the pressure a ing to be controlled from above by the more or less rapid dou of air which feeds the anticyclone. Cyclonic storms are re unusual, and do not occur more than once in two months. The tracks of ocean wind systems in trans Australasia, by Capt. M. W. C. Hepworth. The au examined the daily weather charts of Australia and Zealand, and has prepared maps showing the daily positi the centres of high and low pressures for a whole year finds that the wind systems, which make their first appear to the westward and south-westward, advance to the easy rapidly, and frequently very rapidly, during the winter but during the summer months they usually move more s and not unfrequently recurve. Their progress is retr contact with the areas of high pressure which they encou the mean of the tracks of these anticyclones, moving als west to east, appears to be across the southern portion tralia and onward, crossing the islands of New Zealand the winter months, but to the southward of Western and S Australia, across Victoria and New South Wales, and the the north-eastward, avoiding New Zealand during the months.-Rainfall of Nottinghamshire, 1861-90, by M Mellish. The author has collected and discussed all the records made in the county during the thirty years, and in the extreme west the mean rainfall is 27 inches or mor that over the rest of the county it varies between 25 inches, except north of the Manchester, Sheffield and shire Railway, where the rainfall is less than 25 inches, and north-east towards Gainsborough, where it is not more inches. The year of greatest rainfall was 1872, and rainfall 1887. October is the wettest month and Fe driest. A new instrument for cloud measurements, by Dr. Ekholm.

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Geological Society, December 21, 1892-Prof] Judd, F.R.S., Vice President, in the chair. -The P communications were read :-On a Sauropodous D vertebra from the Wealden of Hastings, by R. Lyder addition to Hoplosaurus armatus and Pelerosaurus Cos there is evidence of another large Sauropodous Dinosau Wealden, now known as Morosaurus brevis. Up to the time it has been impo-sible adequately to compare armatus with Morosaurus brevis; but recently Mr. Ka sent to the British Museu n an imperfect dorsal vere large Sauropodous Dinosaur from the Wealden of His which enabled the required comparison to be made. Th describes the vertebra, contrasts it with that of h armatus, and gives presumptive evidence that it referred to the so-called Morosaurus Becklesi (Marsh), * apparently cannot be separated from M. (Ceresanta. | He has not been able to compare Mr. Rufford's spec the dorsals of the American Morosaurus, in order whether the English Dinosaur is correctly referred genus. This paper led to a discussion, in which the Mr. Hulke, Prof. Seeley, Mr. E. T. Newton, and took part.-On some additional remains of Cestraci fi-hes in the Green Gritty Marls, immediately over) of Marls of the Upper Keuper in Warwickshire, by the

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