given to those persons under any form of government who | have no share of political power.

The usual form in which citizenship is acquired is by birth, by being born of citizens. In the old Greek states, and generally in those ancient states where citizenship existed, this was the only mode in which, as a general rule, it could be acquired. In the Roman political system a man could not claim citizenship by birth unless he was born of such a marriage as the state recognized to be a Roman marriage; and it was essential to a Roman marriage that both parties should be Roman citizens, or that if one of them was not a Roman citizen, such person should belong to a state with which the Romans allowed intermarriage. The English law, which was somewhat modified by the Alien Act passed in 1870 [see ALIEN], gives the citizenship or equal rights, so far as they depend on birth only, to all persons who are born anywhere of a British citizen. If they desire it, it also gives citizenship to every person born in the British dominions and within the king's allegiance, which rule originated in the king claiming such persons as his subjects who were born within his dominions. In the earliest periods of English history those were properly called subjects who may now properly be designated citizens, though citizenship in England must be divided into two kinds, as it was in Rome. Some native citizens do not enjoy the suffrage, nor are they eligible to certain offices, such, for instance, as a membership of the House of Commons. Those who have not the suffrage are in the situation of subjects to that sovereign body of which those who possess the suffrage form a part. Thus the word subject may apply to some persons who live in a republic, as it does apply to all who live under a monarchy.

The United States of America have had various rules as to the admission of aliens to citizenship; but the whole matter was placed on a uniform basis by the Naturalization Act passed in 1870. See NATURALIZATION.

In ancient Rome, aliens when made Roman citizens were not always admitted to the full rights of Roman citizens; and indeed, in the early history of the state, even the plebeians formed a body who were without many of the privileges which the patricians enjoyed. A person might receive the Roman citizenship so far as to enjoy every advantage except a vote at the public elections and access to the honours of the state. This, however, was not citizenship as understood by Aristotle, nor is it citizenship as understood by the free states of modern times. The acquisition of complete citizenship implies the acquisition of a share of the sovereign power; the acquisition of all the rights of a citizen except the suffrage and access to the honours of the state, is a limited citizenship, and it is no more than may be acquired in those states where there is no representative body, and in which a man by such acquisition gets not citizenship, but the state gets a subject. CITRIC ACID exists in numerous fruits, particularly those of the orange tribe, such as the lemon and lime, in which it exists in the free state. It is found combined with malic and other acids in tamarinds, and in gooseberries, currants, strawberries, and most of our native fruits. It was first separated from tartaric acid by Scheele in 1784. Citric acid has been prepared from gooseberries, but it is now made entirely from crude lemon-juice from Sicily, where it is expressed and roughly evaporated to a thick black fluid, or from lime-juice from the West Indies. The crystals of the acid as found in commerce are colourless and inodorous. The primary form of the crystal is a right rhombic prism, subject to numerous variations. These crystals effloresce in the air and melt at about 100° C. (212° Fahr.), and decompose at a higher temperature, yielding aconitic and citraconic acids. The formula of citric acid is CH8O7+H2O. The citric acid is separated and purified on a large scale. The crystals have a very distinct but pleasant acid taste. It is soluble in less than

its weight of cold water and half its weight of boiling water. The solutions are often difficult to crystallize. It is soluble in alcohol. It is extensively used in dyeing and calico printing, and for the finer colours cannot be replaced. It is also much employed in making effervescent beverages and in medicine.

Citric acid combines with ammonia, potash, soda, magnesium, iron, zinc (both of which metals it dissolves), copper, silver, lead, and other bases to form salts. The citrates of potassium and of magnesium are much used in medicine as alteratives, and the citrates of iron, with quinine, potash, and ammonia, as tonics, and as affording an excellent soluble form of administering iron.

Citric acid is a strong acid, decomposing carbonates. In the form of lemon-juice it is gratefully acid. To imitate the natural state citric acid is only given largely diluted. In this state it proves a pleasant drink in fevers and diseases where the temperature of the body rises above the natural standard. According to Broussais it agrees better than any other acid with the stomach when affected with acute inflammation. It is not so pleasant as lemonade prepared from new fresh lemons, and, according to the statement of Sir G. Blane, the solution of citric acid is not so efficacious in the prevention and cure of sea-scurvy as the recent lemon-juice. This is attributable to the absence of the volatile oil and the bitter principle of the rind, which are valuable adjuncts to the citric acid in its action on the stomach. The utility of lemon-juice in promoting the digestion of gelatinous meats, such as veal and turtle, is well known. Fresh lemon-juice may be preserved in bottles in the same way as ripe fruits, by boiling the bottles in which it is contained for half an hour, first placing them in cold water, and gradually heating it, and, as soon as the air has been expelled by the vapour, closing them hermetically. Where lemon-juice so preserved, or fresh lemons, cannot be obtained by ships on long voyages, the dissolved citric acid, to which a portion of an alcoholic extract of lemon peel may be added at the time of using, must serve as a substitute should any apprehensions of scurvy be entertained. Lemon-juice is often a means of correcting acidity in the stomach, since, like most vegetable acids, it elevates the vitality of that organ, and prevents the formation of an excess of acid.

Citric acid, as well as lemon-juice, is much employed to decompose alkaline bicarbonates, forming therewith pleasant effervescing solutions. These taken in the act of effervescence are often of great utility in checking vomiting, and in reducing the temperature in inflammatory complaints; but the amount of injury done by the indiscriminate use of effervescing draughts made with a vegetable acid is incalculable. Were I required," says Dr. Prout, "to name the medicine calculated to do the most mischief, I should name the common saline draught formed of potash or soda and some vegetable acid." Citric acid alone is very useful in the phosphatic diathesis; it is the alkaline base in this combination which does harm.

Externally citric acid largely diluted has been beneficially employed as a refrigerating wash, in the same way as vinegar. Slices of lemon form useful applications to scorbutic and other sores.

CITRINE is a light yellow pellucid variety of quartz, and is sometimes used in jewelry in imitation of topaz.

CITRON (Citrus medica) is nearly allied to the orange (see CITRUS). It is an exceedingly variable species, chiefly valued for the fragrance of the rind of the fruit, from which a delicate sweatmeat is prepared. The citron, supposed to be the Median, Assyrian, or Persian apple of the Greeks, is probably the most beautiful species of the genus. It is a majestic tree, with shining leaves and rosy sweet-scented flowers. The trees are constantly in vegetation, the flowers appear even in mid-winter, and there is so continual a succession of them, that flowers, young fruit, and

ripe fruit may always be seen together at the same moment. The Poncire citrons are 8 or 9 inches long, and are the largest of the race known in Europe.

In China there is an enormous variety, with its lobes all separating into fingers of different shapes and sizes, whence its name of Fingered Citron. The Chinese esteem it very much, both for its rarity and its grateful odour. They place it in their apartments to fill the air with fragrance. The Jews presented the citron at the Feast of Tabernacles, and do so still in their synagogues. The Greeks had seen it in Media and Persia in the time of Theophrastus.

CITRUS is a genus of plants belonging to the order RUTACEAE, and containing the orange and allied fruits. There are five species in tropical Asia and two in Australia. They are trees or shrubs, generally spiny. The

Citrus Aurantium.

leaves are alternate, one-foliate. The flowers are white or pinkish, fragrant, regular, with both stamens and pistil. The stamens are from twenty to sixty in number, inserted round a disc. The ovary has several cells. There are from four to eight ovules, in two series, in each cell. The genus is nearly allied to EGLE.

According to Sir J. Hooker's "Flora of British India" there are four indigenous species in India:

Citrus medica, the CITRON, has three varieties:Limonum, the LEMON; acida, the sour lime; Limetta, the sweet lime.

Citrus Aurantium, the sweet orange, has two varieties:-Bigaradia, the BIGARADE, bitter or Seville orange; Bergamia, the BERGAMOT ORANGE.

Citrus Hystrix has a small fruit with acid pulp. It is not cultivated, but is native in the Khasia Mountains and Sumatra.

Citrus decumana is the SHADDOCK. It is commonly cultivated in India, and is also native in the Malayan and Polynesian Islands.

Citrus japonica, the Kumquat, is a native of Japan. Citrus australis and Citrus australasica are natives of Australia.

CIT'TA VECCHIA (or the Old City), as it is commonly called, but the proper name of which is Città Notabile, is a town of Malta, situated on a rising-ground in the interior of the island, about 6 miles from Valetta; it was, before the foundation of the latter city, the capital of the island. It is still the seat of the bishopric, and contains the cathedral, a handsome modern edifice built on the site of the ancient church. The city is walled, but is of no importance as a fortification. It contains many good and even magnificent buildings, but with the exception of two large convents the population is very trifling. A populous suburb, called the Rabbato, is inhabited by the dependants of the many convents and ecelesiastical establishments in the neighbourhood, and by a large agricultural population. There are extensive catacombs cut in the calcareous rocks. One excavated chamber near these, over which a church has been built, is called the "Grotto of St. Paul," being said to have sheltered that apostle. The parish churches are large and magnificent; they are built of the stone of the island, and being isolated and well situated in the centre of the habitations display their architecture to advantage. The town was formerly called Medina by the Arabs, and it is not improbable that it represents the ancient Melita. Population, 25,000.

CITY (French cité, ultimately from the Latin civitas). Blackstone, following Coke, says: "A city is a town incorporated which is or hath been the see of a bishop ("Comm. Introd.," sec. iv.) Stephens in his "Commentaries" says:-"There seems to be no necessary connection between a city and a see." For instance, Westminster is a city though it is not incorporated; Thetford is a town though incorporated, and once the seat of a bishop. Westminster owes its designation to the circumstance that it had a bishop for a few years of the reign of Henry VIII., and in the reign of Edward VI. But there are, besides Thetford, many places which were once the seats of bishops which are never called cities.

In the United States of America the name city is given to all towns which are incorporated and governed by a mayor and aldermen.

CIUDAD', the Spanish prefix representing the English affix town, as Ciudad Rodrigo, which means Roderick's Town. CIUDAD REAL', a town of Spain, the capital of the province of the same name, is situated 97 miles from Madrid on a plain between the Guadiana and the Javalon. It has some manufacture of woollen and leather goods, and a trade in the produce of the district and in mules. It has several churches and a large hospital. The city was built after the expulsion of the Moors from La Mancha, to serve as a check upon those who still maintained themselves in the Sierra Morena. Extensive remains of its ancient walls and towers still exist. It was the headquarters of the famous Santa Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood, an order founded in 1249 for the extirpation of highway robbers. Population, 5000.

CIUDAD' RODRIGO, a city of Spain, in the province and about 50 miles S.W. of the town of Salamanca, and 16 miles from the Portuguese frontier, near the right bank of the Agueda, which is here crossed by a bridge of seven arches. It is a strongly fortified town defended by a citadel, and has 5000 inhabitants. It gives title to a bishop. The streets are regular, and the houses pretty well built. Among the principal public buildings are the

CLAM is a popular name used for many different kinds of shell-fish. The clam par excellence, according to Professor Gould and other American writers, is the Mya arenaria, a mollusc belonging to the LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. It is found on both sides of the North Atlantic, and on the west of the North Pacific. It is used both in this country and in North America as food for man and as bait for fishes. On the banks of Newfoundland the fishermen bait their lines very successfully with it, and it is said further to be peculiarly acceptable to the cod. Dr. Gould, in his account of the invertebrata of Massachusetts, says "The clam Mya arenaria is still more important in an economical point of view than the oyster. It is extremely prolific, and its exhaustless banks are every day accessible during twelve of the twentyfour hours." About 5000 bushels of clams are annually brought to market. Immense numbers are salted for the bank fisheries-not less than 5000 barrels every year. "Seven bushels of clams make about one barrel of bait; so that thirty or forty thousand bushels are used in this prepared state, and perhaps as many more are used from the shell. The value of the clam-bait is six or seven dollars per barrel" (Gould and Johnston).

In the genus Mya (" gaper ") the bivalve shell gapes at the ends; the left valve is the smallest, with a large flattened cartilaginous process; the pallial sinus is large. The Myas are fond of soft bottoms, Mya arenaria burrowing a foot deep. They range from low water to 25 fathoms, and rarely to 130 fathoms.

The

The Wampum Clam is the Venus mercenaria. North American Indians used to collect sea-worn fragments, make holes in them, string them on leather thongs, and use them as a coinage (wampum). Professor Gould mentions that this shell is known in Massachusetts as the "quahog," a name given by the Indians. It is esteemed as an article of food. Professor Gwyn Jeffreys notices, in Nature for 1883, the introduction of this mollusc on the shores of Cheshire and the prospect of its naturalization. The shell of species belonging to the genus Venus is regular, closed, and thick, with a small pallial sinus. The margins of the shell have fine crenulations on the inside. The hinder margin of each valve is of a fine deep violet colour. They are found at the depth of a few inches in the sand at low water, and range to 100 fathoms. All the species of the genus are edible. The Wampum Clam is found from Massachusetts to Delaware Bay.

The Giant Clam Shells (Tridacnida) also belong to the LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. They are solid, opaque, white shells, regularly equivalve, truncate anteriorly. The valves are strongly ribbed externally, and the margins dentate internally. The ligament is external, and the hinge is furnished with very oblique, interlocking teeth. The clam shells are the giants among the bivalves, and live attached by their byssus to rocks, shells, and corals. They also have the faculty of forming holes in the surface of the shell or coral to which they may happen to be affixed" (Gray). The genus Tridacna has a massive trigonal shell, ornamented with radiating ribs and imbricating foliations. The valves have a wide gape close to the beak in front, occupying nearly the whole anterior side, for the passage of the large byssus. The hinge is composed of a single cardinal compressed tooth in each valve, two posterior lateral teeth in one, and a single one in the other. There are seven species natives of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific.

Tridacna gigas (the giant clam shell proper) is very large, with great imbricated squamous ribs. Its size and weight, combined with the beautiful marble-like appearance of its interior, have always caused it to be sought after as an ornament for grotto work or for garden fountains. A pair used as "benitiers," or vessels for containing holy water, may be seen in the Church of St. Sulpice, in Paris; they weigh 500 lbs., are more than 2 feet

|

| across, and were presented to Francis I. by the Republic of Venice. Specimens were exhibited in the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, in 1883, which measured 3 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 2 inches and weighed 3 cwts. 3 qrs. 14 lbs. The byssus is so large, and its attachment to the rock so strong, that it is frequently necessary to cut it with a hatchet in order to remove the shell. The animal makes good eating, and some of our earlier voyagers have mentioned it as furnishing their sailors a wholesome meal. Captain Cook states that they sometimes weigh upwards of 20 lbs.

The Bear's-paw Clam or Horse-hoof Shell (genus Hippopus) has a transversely ovate shell of moderate size, ribbed, and squamous externally. It is readily distinguished from the preceding by its valves being closed and flattened in front, and in consequence having no aperture for a byssus, and by having only two compressed cardinal teeth in each valve. The species Hippopus maculatus is a handsome shell, white, spotted with red or purple, and is found on the coral reefs of the Indian Ocean. The shells are now much used in the ornamental arts for making into inkstands and other useful purposes.

The Giant, Beach, or Dipper Clam is Mactra solidissima. It is a shell between 4 and 5 inches long, and is a native of the east coast of the United States.

CLAN, in Gaelic clann, which signifies children or descendants. The clans of the Highlands of Scotland were families or tribes all the members of which bore the same surname, and were supposed to be descended from a common ancestor, of whom the chief of the clan was the lineal representative. Most of the Highland noblemen and gentlemen had designations peculiar to them as chiefs of their clans, which in their own country no feudal titles or distinctions, however exalted, were allowed to efface. "Besides his ordinary name and surname," says Sir Walter Scott (note to "Lady of the Lake," canto ii.), "which was chiefly used in the intercourse with the lowlands, every Highland chief had an epithet expressive of his patriarchal dignity as head of the clan, and which was common to all his predecessors and successors, as Pharaoh to the kings of Egypt, or Arsaces to those of Parthia. This name was usually a patronymic, expressive of his descent from the founder of the family. Thus the Duke of Argyle is called MacCallum More, or the Son of Colin the Great. Sometimes, however, it is derived from armorial distinctions, or the memory of some great feat; thus Lord Seaforth, as chief of the Mackenzies, or Clan Kennet, bears the epithet of Caber Fae, or Buck's Head, as representative of Colin Fitzgerald, founder of the family, who saved the Scottish king when endangered by a stag."

CLANG TINT is the translation used by Professor Tyndall of the word which Helmholtz employs to embody his discovery of the causes of the quality of tone of musical instruments. The German word is klang-farbe, the French is timbre, and the latter is often used by English musicians. There seems no good reason, however, for coining strange words; clang, too, carries with it an idea of clashing, of clinking, which is not at all in the nature of the combination of prime and upper partials which gives a musical note. The reader is referred, therefore, to the paragraphs relating to quality of tone in the article ACOUSTICS.

CLAQUE (French, claquer, to clap hands) is the name given to a system which has been regularly organized in Paris, dating from 1820, when the first office was set up, by which managers of places of public amusement try to secure popularity for their performances. Men hired for the purpose take the places assigned to them in the theatres, concert rooms, &c., and applaud the actors in the pieces according to instruction. These are the claqueurs, whose work it is to bear down independent criticism, to lead the applause of the audience, and to

cathedral, founded in 1170, one collegiate and six parish churches, the college, the ecclesiastical seminary, two hospitals, and several convents. Woollen stuffs, linen, leather, and soap are the chief industrial products. The town was built in the reign of Fernando II. on the site of the ancient Lancia-Transcudana. In the principal square there are three Roman columns with inscriptions. Ciudad Rodrigo was taken by the Portuguese in 1706; the French seized it in 1810, and held it till 1812, when the Duke of (then Lord) Wellington, having come upon it by surprise with the English and Portuguese forces on 8th January, after a vigorous siege took it by assault on the 20th of the same month in that year. A large battering-train and immense quantities of ammunition were found in the town. The allies lost about 1200 men and ninety officers in the siege and assault. This important achievement procured for the general the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo from the Spanish government, and of Marquis Torres Vedras from the Portuguese.

CIV'ET (Viverra) is a genus of carnivorous animals belonging to the family VIVERRIDE. The members of this genus approach the Cat family (FELIDE) very closely in many points of their zoological character, as well as in their predatory, sanguinary, and nocturnal habits. In addition to the six incisors and two canines, which are common to the whole of the true Carnivora, they have on each side and in each jaw six molars, one of which is peculiarly adapted for lacerating flesh, while the rest are more or less of the ordinary form. Their tongues are furnished with the same elevated and pointed papillæ which give so remarkable an asperity to those of the cats, and their claws are half retractile. The toes are five in number on each of their feet, and their extremities alone are applied to the ground in walking; the animals are consequently completely digitigrade. But the most distinctive character of the group consists in an opening near the tail, leading into a double cavity of considerable size, furnished with glands and follicles for the secretion of the peculiar odoriferous substance so well known as the produce of the civet, and from which the animal derives its name. The best known species is the African civet (Viverra ciretta), figured in the second of the Plates devoted to the CARNIVORA. This civet is most abundant in North Africa, but it is also found on the coast of Guinea and at other parts of the continent as far south as the Mozambique. It is nearly 3 feet long, not including the tail, which measures about 18 inches. Its coat is of a light brownish-gray colour, with spots and bands of a darker brown or blackish tint. The hairs along the central line of the back and neck are sufficiently elongated to form a kind of mane, which can be raised or depressed at will. The tail is ringed with black. It approaches in its habits nearest to the smaller cats, and preys upon birds and small quadrupeds.

In a state of captivity it becomes in a degree tame, but never familiar, and is dangerous to handle. The young are fed on farinaceous food-millet pap, for instance-with a little flesh or fish, and when old on raw flesh. Many of these animals are kept in North Africa for the purpose of obtaining the perfume, which brings a high price. The eivet is procured by scraping the inside of the pouch with an iron spatula at intervals about twice a week. If the animal is in good condition and a male, especially if he has been irritated, a dram or thereabouts is obtained each time. The quantity collected from the female does not equal that secreted by the male. Civet, like most other articles of this nature, is much adulterated, and it is rare to get it quite pure. The adulteration is effected with suet or oil to make it heavier. Other species of this genus are the ZIBET and the RASSE.

CIVIC CROWN. Among the Romans a civic crown was the recompense for the life of a citizen saved either in

battle or assault. This crown, which was in fact a wreath, was at first of elm, afterwards beech was used, and lastly. and most generally, oak. It was the highest but one of the crowns of honour, the highest of all being the corona obsidionalis, given to the general who broke up a siege, made of grass plucked from the ground of captivity. The wearer of a civic crown had a seat next the senate at all public spectacles, and the whole assembly rose at his entrance. He was free of all public burdens.

CIVIL LIST. The expenses of the English government, including military expenses, were formerly comprehended in one general list, and defrayed out of what was called the royal revenue. For a considerable period after the Conquest this revenue, derived from the rents of the crown lands and from other sources, was under the sole management of the crown. Even when the greater portion of the expenses of the government came to be granted by Parliament in the form of supplies, the entire expenditure was still left with the crown, and the supplies were either voted for no specific purpose, or, when they were voted for a special purpose, Parliament had no control over their application. This continued to the Restoration in 1660. A distinction was then made between the military expenses of the government and those incurred in the maintenance of the ordinary establishments of the country. The revenues appropriated to the latter were provided for partly from the crown lands that remained unalienated, and partly from certain taxes imposed by Parliament expressly for that purpose during the life of the reigning king.

In the reign of William III. the civil list was established, being a grant of £700,000, of which the excise duties provided £300,000 and the hereditary revenues of the crown the remainder. This sum was applied in defraying the expenses of the royal household and of the privy purse, the maintenance and repairs of the royal palaces, the salaries of the lord chancellor, the judges, the great officers of state, and the ambassadors at foreign courts; and out of it were also paid the incomes of the members of the royal family, the secret-service money, pensions, and a long list of other claims. Under Anne and George I. debts on the civil list were incurred and had to be paid by Parliament. Consequently George II. asked for a civil list of £800,000, and Parliament engaged to make up the deficiency from the hereditary revenues. In 1746, however, the crown debt of half a million had to be paid.

At the accession of George III. the larger branches of the hereditary revenue of England were surrendered, and the sum of £800,000 was voted by Parliament for the civil list, but no particular taxes were set apart to provide that revenue. In the course of a few years a large amount of debt had accumulated in this department, and to pay it off two sums, amounting together to considerably above £1,000,000, were voted by Parliament in 1769 and 1777. In the year 1777, also, the civil-list revenue was permanently raised to £900,000. This, however, did not prevent further deficiencies, which were again made good by Parliament in 1784 and 1786, to the extent of about £270,000. In 1780 Burke brought in his bill for the better regulation of the civil list, which, although it was greatly mutilated before it passed into a law (in 1782), abolished several useless offices, and effected some reductions.

According to the report of a committee of the House of Commons upon the civil list in 1802, the total average annual expenditure in that branch since 1786 had been £1,000,167, under the following heads :-Royal family in all its branches, £209,988: great officers of state, £33,279; foreign ministers, £80,526; tradesmen's bills, £174,697; menial servants of the household, £92,424; pensions, £114,817; salaries to various officers, £76,013; commissioners of the treasury, £14,455; occasional payments, £203,964. At this time another sum of above £990,000 was voted by Parliament to pay the debts on the civil