of brandy more than to the improvement of their wines, cach possessing a still and superintending the process of distillation on his own premises. The famous Cognac, brandies, called fines champagnes de Cognac-of which not more than 6000 butts are produced annually, but the quantity sold under the name exceeds 15,000 buttsare distilled from the juice of a white grape called folle blanche; brandies made from red wines are considered greatly inferior. Truffles are very abundant. Saffron is cultivated. A great number of pigs and cattle are raised for the Paris market, and the poultry good and plentiful. The climate is agreeable and temperate, and the air is pure; strong winds from the west and south-west sometimes prevail.

Mines of iron, lead, and antimony are worked; a good deal of bar-iron and steel is manufactured; building stone, plaster of Paris, and grinding stone are found. Next to brandy paper is the most important article of manufacture; broadcloth, linen, sailcloth, cordage, hats, corks, oak-staves, hoops, and pottery are also made. The commerce of the department consists in the agricultural and industrial products named above, and of oil, nuts, casks, rags, large chestnuts, called marrons, &c.

The department is divided into the following five arrondissements:-Angoulême, Barbezieux, Cognac, Confolens, and Ruffec. The chief town is Angoulême.

CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE, a department in France, which consists of the basin of the lower Charente, and comprises the former provinces of Saintonge and Aunis, and the islands of Ré, Oléron, Aix, and Madame. It is bounded N. by the department of Vendée, N.W. by that of Deux-Sèvres, E. by that of Charente, S. by that of Gironde, and W. by the Bay of Biscay. Its greatest length, from N. to S., is about 85 miles, and its greatest breadth about 50; the area, however, amounts to only 2636 square miles. The population in 1882 was 466,416. The coast-line of the department, including the northeastern shore of the Gironde, measures 105 miles, and has several good harbours and well-sheltered roadsteads. The coast is low, consisting of salt marshes partially separated from the sea by sandhills, liable to be flooded by every tide, and extending a considerable way inland. Of these marshes, however, a very large extent has been converted into most productive land, the sea being shut out by means of dykes, and the surface of the marshes drained by canals, in pretty nearly the same way as the polders in Holland and Belgium are drained. In those to which the sea still has access a great quantity of excellent salt is made. The rest of the department is level and very fertile. The soil, which is of a vegetable and sandy nature, resting in most places on chalk, affords excellent pasture for great numbers of cattle, sheep, and horses; and yields abundant supplies of farm produce and a vast quantity of wine, in the growth of which | Charente-Inférieure ranks second among the wine-growing departments of France. The climate is temperate and healthy, except in the low grounds along the coast, in which agues and fevers prevail in summer and autumn.

The department is drained by the Charente, the Boutonne, and the Seugne, described under CHARENTE; by the Gironde, which borders it on the south-west; by the SèvreNiortaise in the north; and by the Scudre, which, rising north of Jonzac, flows north-west past Saujon, and enters the bay opposite the isle of Oléron. All these are tide rivers and navigable, and together with the canal from La Rochelle to the Sèvre-Niortaise, and that from Brouage to Rochefort, afford great facilities for internal and external trade. The department is traversed by nine governmental and sixteen departmental roads, and has also good railway accommodation.

Grain of all kinds is produced in quantity more than sufficient for the consumption. Of the annual produce of wine about one-third is used for home consumption; the

remainder is distilled into brandy or exported, chiefly to Bretagne. None of the wines of the department are of high repute: the red wines of the right bank of the Charente rank as third-class vins d'ordinaire; the white wine grown on the left bank, and in the eastern part of the arrondissement of La Rochelle, are converted into brandy and sold as Cognac, but are greatly inferior to the champagnes de Cognac. A large quantity of apples, plums, walnuts, peaches, &c., are grown. Other articles of produce are clover and flax-seed, hemp, saffron, garden beans, wormwood, &c. Great numbers of pigs are fattened; poultry is very abundant; hares, rabbits, and winged game are plentiful; aquatic birds in countless numbers frequent the marshes along the coast; the pilchard and oyster fisheries are extensive and valuable.

The industrial activity of the department is considerable. Besides the distillation of brandy, which is generally managed by the farmer on his own premises, and the manufacture of salt, the following industrial products, though only of secondary importance, deserve mention, namely, woollens, hosiery, shoe and glove leather, fine pottery, vinegar, hoops, oak staves, and timber. At almost all the ports, but especially at La Rochelle and Rochefort, shipbuilding is carried The commerce of the department consists in the products already named, in colonial produce, butter, oil, bottles, wine casks, liqueurs, &c. Ships are fitted out for foreign trade and for the cod fisheries; the coasting trade is active.

on.

The department is divided into six arrondissements::La Rochelle, so called from the town of the same name, which is the capital of the department; Rochefort, Marennes, Saintes, Jonzac, and St. Jean d'Angély.

CHARENTON-LE-PONT, a town in the department of Seine, France, situated on the right bank of the Marne, near its confluence with the Seine, 5 miles south-east of Paris. It consists of two communes- -Charenton, in which is a famous national lunatic asylum, and St. Meurice, which has a great foundry for steam machinery: the united population is 11,101. It takes its surname of Le-Pont from the bridge over the Marne, which has been the scene of many a fierce struggle for the possession of the capital, one of the most interesting of which was its defence by the pupils of the veterinary school in 1814. This bridge is now guarded by two forts, which form part of the fortifications of Paris.

CHARGE, in heraldry, the figures on the shield-from the French chargé.

CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES. See AMBASSADOR. CHAR'IOT (from the French, originally from the Latin carreta, a small car), a car for pleasure, or one in which men of arms were placed in fight. Chariots armed with scythes were in use for many ages in all the Eastern countries, such as are mentioned in the Second Book of Maccabees (xiii. 2), which the King of Syria led against Judea, or those used by the Persians and by the ancient Britons. The chariot was an open two-wheeled vehicle with one pole. If drawn by two horses it was a biga, and one of the finest of the Vatican marbles represents this variety; if three horses were used, one was fastened in front by traces, and the chariot was a triga. A quadriga was a chariot and four, the extra pair being outside the yoke horses, so that all four were abreast. This was the great racing-car, and that used for triumphs and other

state occasions.

CHARITY COMMISSIONERS. A body of commissioners created under the Charitable Trusts Act of 1853, who were empowered to inquire into all charities in England and Wales, with reference to their nature, objects, and administration, and the amount and condition of the property belonging to them. They have power to call for the production of accounts and documents from trustees, and to appoint inspectors to visit and report on their management. They have power, moreover, to modify charitable

bequests when trustees have allowed them to fall into Cecay, or have so mismanaged the property that it is no longer capable of fulfilling the wishes of the donors. In such cases the lands, houses, or whatever the estate may consist of, are sold, the proceeds invested in government securities, and the commissioners distribute the dividends as they accrue. It would seem as if any attempt to manage an estate in land or houses for charitable purposes through the agency of trustees is sure to break down sooner or Later. As a matter of fact, in a vast number of instances the machinery does break down at a shorter or longer time after the founder's death, the property is sold, and the charity passes into the hands of this government department-a course, doubtless, little anticipated by real or fancied philanthropists, who had imagined they had erected an enduring monument of their munificence. Since the year 1853 sales of charitable property to the extent of over £4,000,000 have taken place under the authority of the commissioners, and the annual amount sold appears to increase. The powers of the Charity Commissioners do not extend to Scotland or Ireland, to the English universities, or to the city of London. An annual report of their proceedings is laid before Parliament.

In 1875 the powers of the Endowed Schools Commissioners were transferred to the Charity Commissioners.

CHARLEROI, a town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault. It is a strong fortress on the Sambre, 23 miles east from Mons, and stands on the Brussels-Namur Railway. It has 14,000 inhabitants. The manufacture of glass, salt, sugar, leather, nails, woollen yarn, &c., is among its industries. The town stands in a most extensive coal-field, which gives employment to upwards of 10,000 men, and yields annually 3,000,000 tons of coal. The number of smelting furnaces, iron-foundries, and nail factories in the surrounding district is very great.

The fortress of Charleroi was built in 1666 by Rodrigo, Spanish governor of the Netherlands, and named after Charles II., king of Spain. The lower and middle town were added by Louis XIV. in 1676. Charleroi has sustained several memorable sieges; and by various treaties Las been transferred from Spain to France, from France to Spain, from Spain to Austria, and from Austria to France. The fortifications were materially improved under the direction of the Duke of Wellington after the campaign of 1815. Near Charleroi are the ruins of the magnificent abbey of Alue, in a beautifully romantic solitude, about 9 miles from the town. The cloisters of this superb establishment were supported by 300 columns of coloured marble, and its revenue amounted to £250,000.

CHARLES. The articles on the sovereigns of this name are arranged in the following order:-England, France, Germany, Burgundy, Sweden, and Sardinia.

CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND, third son of James I. and Anne of Denmark, was born at Dunfermline, in Scotland, 19th November, 1600. His brothers having died, one in infancy and Prince Henry in 1612 at the age of 19, Charles became heir-apparent to the crown, but was not created Prince of Wales till 19th November, 1616.

The principal event in which Charles figured before his accession to the throne was his expedition to Spain in 1623 to woo the Infanta. After that match was broken off, a negotiation was begun, before the death of James in March, 1625, for his marriage with the Princess Henrietta Maria, the youngest daughter of Henry IV. of France, which was solemnized by proxy at Paris, on 11th May of the same year. As Henrietta was a fervent Catholic this marriage roused intense discontent among the great body of the people, which had become Puritan. Charles began his reign by retaining as his chief adviser his father's favourite, the unpopular, unprincipled, and incapable Duke of Buckingham.

The reign commenced with a contest between the king

and the Parliament, the latter firmly refusing to grant the supplies demanded by his Majesty for the war with Spain until they had obtained both a redress of grievances and a limitation of the prerogative. In the course of this first contest three Parliaments were successively called together and dismissed. The first met 13th June, 1625, and was dissolved 12th August in the same year; the second met 6th February, 1626, threatened Buckingham, and was dissolved 15th June; the third met 17th March, 1628, presented the PETITION OF RIGHT, and made ready to attack Buckingham, but was suddenly prorogued 26th June; was called together for a second session 20th January, 1629, and was finally dissolved 10th March of the same During the prorogation Buckingham had been assassinated. All this time the proceedings of the king continued to be of the most arbitrary character, and he now adopted the policy of governing without parliaments. The hated STAR CHAMBER became the chief court of the realm. Before entering on this line of policy he wisely made peace, first on 14th April, 1629, with France, and secondly, on 5th November, 1630, with Spain.

year.

This state of things lasted for eleven years. The only memorable attempt at resistance was that made by Hampden, who refused to pay his assessment of SHIP-MONEY, and whose case was argued before the twelve judges in April, 1637, and decided in favour of the crown. Meantime Laud's religious tyranny had become most oppressive over the whole kingdom; and at last the opposition of the people of Scotland to the episcopal form of church government suddenly burst out into a flame. The first disturbances took place in Edinburgh in the end of July, 1637; and by the beginning of the following year the whole country was signing the "Covenant," and was in a state of insurrection against the royal authority.

In these circumstances Charles called together his fourth Parliament, which met 13th April, 1640. The temper which the members showed, however, induced him to dissolve it on the 5th of May following; but the Scotch army having entered England on 20th August, a fifth Parliament was summoned, which met on 3rd November, 1640, and is generally known under the name of the Long Parliament. Wentworth, earl of Strafford, had come out as a patriot when a member of the Commons, striving hard for the Petition of Right. But after Buckingham's death he had crept into royal favour with his plan of "Thorough," or in other words of imitating the policy of Richelieu and turning England into a powerful despotism. With this aim Strafford went to Ireland, created a great army, doubled the revenue by ruling with a firm hand Catholics and Protestants alike, and even so tamed that turbulent half-savage country as to venture successfully to call an Irish parliament. What Laud was at church and council in England, Strafford excelled in Ireland. This was the man whom Charles called to his aid when he summoned the "Short Parliament" in April, 1640, and counselled by whom he had begun the so-called "Bishop's War" against the Puritan Scots. Against Strafford and Laud therefore the Long Parliament, called November, 1640, at once made a stand. During the elections Pym rode through England appealing to the electors, and evoking such enthusiasm that he was called "King Pym;" and it was Pym who fought and won the battle of constitutional liberty in England. When Charles refused to act it was Pym who invented the bold doctrine that this was abdication, and vested all power in the two Houses; when the Lords grew restive still later, it was Pym who begged the Commons to "save the kingdom alone." The Long Parliament, thus led, moved rapidly. The Star Chamber and other irregular jurisdictions were abolished, ship-money declared illegal, arbitrary taxation annulled, and triennial parliaments demanded. To all of this Charles had to assent, for the Scotch were still in arms in the north. Finally, Laud was

flung into prison, to lie there till his execution in 1645; and then the "grand apostate to the commonwealth," Strafford, was impeached by Pym at the very instant that he was counselling Charles to treat secretly with the Scotch in order to be able to crush the Parliament. This plot and an English army plot" exasperated the Commons, and Strafford was condemned to death by attainder, the impeachment having fallen through. The wretched king signed the warrant (May, 1641). He was next made to sign an act decreeing that "the present Parliament should not be dissolved without its own consent." Charles now dallied with the Scotch, went to Edinburgh, and granted every demand till enthusiasm grew great. At the same time the disbanded soldiers of Strafford's Irish army committed the most fearful excesses in Ireland till the Catholic Irish rose against all Protestants, showing Charles' own commission (but this was alleged by the Royalists to be a forgery), and styling themselves the "King's Army." Desperate with such treason Pym laid before the House a Solemn Remonstrance against Papistry, praying also for ministers who would be agreeable to Parliament. "Had it been rejected," said Oliver Cromwell, "I would have sold to-morrow all I possess and left England for ever." (He alluded to the exodus of Puritans to America, which began with the celebrated Mayflower, in 1620, under the persecution of Elizabeth, and had continued at intervals during the severities of James and of Charles.) Charles personally went down to the House, and demanded five members to be given up as guilty of treason, Hampden, Pym, Hollis, Strode, and Haslerig. Such a proceeding was quite unknown, and the prudent absence of these gentlemen alone prevented an immediate bloodshed and outbreak of civil war. Still, since nothing had yet been done beyond setting aside the Stuart and Tudor tyranny, all might have been well had not Charles determined on war. The queen was pawning crown jewels in Holland to get money; the Parliament drew up a Militia Bill, placing the command of troops in hands they could trust. The king steadily rejected it; and finally illegally levied forces by his own authority, and raised his standard at Nottingham on 23rd August, 1642, against his own people. On their side, also, the Commons broke all precedent by themselves appointing lords lieutenant of militia. Charles had the nobles and men used to arms on his side, and of course many garrisons welcomed him; it is not wonderful therefore that at first he was almost uniformly successful. Edgehill (1642) was a drawn battle; Newbury (1643) was also indecisive. Pym now turned to the Scotch, and his last work was the drawing up of the "Solemn League and Covenant," an attempt to bring the nations into unity of religious thought and political harmony. This was sworn to by the Parliament and the Scotch, who now joined hands against the treacherous king. The result was seen in the Parliament's victory at Marston Moor, near York, in 1644, the first great engagement in which Oliver Cromwell and the famous Ironsides took part. A second fight at Newbury was also won by Cromwell in 1644, and the war was now felt to be in stronger hands. Of his Ironsides he says in one of his speeches, "Truly they were never beaten at all." Cromwell was permitted to form a "new model" army, and as a result the crushing defeat of Naseby, near Northampton, 14th June, 1645, swept away the king's cause at once and for ever. It did more: by the seizure of his correspondence it proved that the incessant negotiations had been pure trickery on the king's part, as plots with Scotch and Irish, even with Catholics, had been hatching the whole time. The royal word was never more to be taken. Charles fled to the Scotch army, but they basely sold him for £400,000 and retired over the border. He was now in the custody of Parliamentary commissioners, and was at once offered terms of great moderation-freedom of religion, public nomination of the great state officials, reform of taxation and law, &c. But the

worthless Charles only saw an opportunity for playing off parties; and finessed to get a party of his own, till all those who had to do with him could no longer conceal their contempt. Cromwell's expression sums up the whole: "The king is a man of great parts and great understanding, but so great a dissembler and so false a man that he is not to be trusted." Charles managed to escape from Hampton Court; but flying to Carisbrooke in the Isle of Wight found himself mistaken in his man, and was imprisoned again by the governor of the castle. Charles yet had means to write, and from his prison signed a treaty with the Scotch for a fresh invasion of the kingdom, though at that moment negotiating with the Parliament for peace. The fleet mutinied against the Parliament, and the Scotch advanced, but the latter were cut to pieces by Cromwell at Preston, 1648, and the sailors ceased their revolt. The army, fresh from Preston, learned that the Presbyterians, who were in a majority in Parliament, were even now on the point of signing peace with Charles, an absurdity which led Cromwell to seize the reins of authority and expel in "Pride's purge" some 140 members. Charles was removed to Windsor; his trial was at once resolved on by the remainder, chiefly Independents (Cromwell's own party)—afterwards called the Rump Parliament; and 150 commissioners were appointed to conduct it, the lawyer Jolin Bradshaw being at their head. Charles was condemned as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and enemy of his country, after five days' trial in Westminster Hall, and was executed outside Whitehall 30th January, 1649. The king's demeanour at the trial was undignified, but his firmness at his execution has done much to sweeten his memory. A good husband and father, a cultivated kindly man, he was, as Cromwell called him, so false a man that he was not to be trusted. It is probable, however, that as with Louis XVI. of France, his execution, by making him a martyr, did much to elevate the bad cause and to ruin the cause of noble aims.

Professor Gardiner's "History of England from 1603 to 1642" (ten vols., London, 1883-84) has quite superseded all other accounts of the earlier period of this reign; and Carlyle's "Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, with Elucidations," is equally supreme for the later period; it is justly said to be "edited with the care of an antiquarian and the genius of a poet." The "Personal Government of Charles I.," by Professor Gardiner (London, 1872), is the great authority for the middle period of the reign.

CHARLES II. OF ENGLAND, Sen of Charles I., was born 29th May, 1630. On the breaking out of the Civil War, in 1642, the Prince of Wales, then only twelve years of age, was appointed to a command in the army. After the battle of Naseby the prince retired successively to Scilly, Jersey, Paris, and the Hague, where he took up his residence, and where he received the news of the death of his father, upon which he immediately assumed the title of king. In February, 1649, he was proclaimed King of Scotland at Edinburgh. Ile arrived in the north of Scotland 23rd June, 1650, and having taken the covenant was crowned at Scone on 1st January, 1651. Cromwell's movements forced the king to adopt the plan of marching into England, where the battle of Worcester (3rd September, 1651) entirely crushed his hopes for a time and involved his person in danger. After many romantic adventures he effected his escape to the Continent. Charles made his principal residence at Bruges and at Brussels, at the latter of which places he received the news of Cromwell's death in September, 1658. After the resignation of Richard Cromwell negotiations were entered into with General Monk, and on 1st May, 1660, the Parliament voted his restoration, and he arrived at London on 29th May.

We can give only a very general sketch of the progress of events during this reign. It commenced with a complete restoration of the ancient order of things, both in church and state. The regicides were hung, and the