the infant, as by the constant desire it evinces to press against the gum everything it can lay hold of. The irritation of the gum extends to the salivary apparatus of the mouth and its neighbourhood, as is proved by the increased flow of saliva, which is commonly more or less altered in quality, as well as increased in quantity, being thicker and more tenacious than the natural secretion. These symptoms of local irritation are usually accompanied by a slight degree of constitutional disturbance, the skin being commonly hotter and drier, the face occasionally flushed, the bowels more relaxed, and the infant itself more restless and fretful than is natural. The irritation, when restricted within a moderate limit, seems to be the necessary consequence of the developmental process going on. It is, however, when this process goes on in a system predisposed to disease that we find it productive of serious results. The irritation attendant on abnormal dentition commences in a portion of the mucous surface of the digestive apparatus, and from its source in the mouth it is readily propagated to the stomach, intestines, and liver, producing in the stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, flatulence, acid eructations, &c.; in the intestines, griping pain, flatulence, diarrhoea; in the liver, disordered secretion of bile, in consequence of which the fæcal evacuations are greatly altered in quantity and quality, being at one time too scanty and at another too copious, sometimes light or clay coloured, and at other times dark green, spinach-like, and preternaturally fetid, mixed with large quantities of unhealthy viscid mucus. The kidney is also sometimes affected. One of the most fatal diseases brought on by dentition is hydrocephalus acutus, or water in the head. This discase is preceded by the start in sleep, the slight chill hardly amounting to rigour, the flushed face, the sudden darting transient pain in the head, the unusual drowsiness, and then come the sudden start from that deep sleep with a loud scream, the injected eye, the dilated pupil, followed by the constant rolling of the head upon the pillow, the loss of sight, and the progressively increasing insensibility and coma. The irritation thus produced in the spinal cord and brain is quickly reflected back upon those museles the action of which depends upon an influence derived from the great nervous centres-the muscles of volition, which are affected with twitchings, spasms, convulsions, sometimes passing into chorea, epilepsy, catalepsy, and tetanus.

Besides all these evils produced by abnormal dentition, there is one specific disease that results from it of a most formidable nature, and often fatal. This affection may be termed the disease of development; it is commonly called infantile remittent fever. The accession of this disease is denoted by languor, lassitude, chilliness, shivering succeeded by heat of skin, perspiration, and accelerated pulse. Sometimes this ailment is slight in degree, or it may assume an acute form with all the fire and anger of a hot fever. Sometimes it is typhoid in its type. Whatever character may be assumed by this disorder, it is coincident with an irregular course of the development of some organ of the body; and commonly the irregular development is in the nutrient organs, and of these most commonly the teeth and jaws.

Disease arising from abnormal dentition is not confined to the period of infancy. In children of irritable constitutions, in whom the maxillæ are imperfectly developed, the irruption of the second or permanent teeth is sometimes attended with serious and even fatal disorders. Nay, even the period of adolescence is by no means free from severe diseases produced by this same cause; for in consequence of the development of some of the teeth having been preternaturally delayed, or in consequence of an imperfect development of the jaws at the period when the dentes sapientiæ are about to appear, delicate, nervous, and irritable subjects are not unfrequently affected with swelling of the parotid and submaxillary glands, painful and

sometimes periodical affections of the ear and face, slight or recurring ophthalmia, irregular convulsions, epilepsy, and chorea, which affections have disappeared at once upon the irruption of the teeth or the removal of the local irritation. The treatment of the various and formidable diseases produced by abnormal dentition must be conducted with a constant reference to the causes on which they depend. Without a proper regulation of the diet, clothing, air, eXETcise, and the state of the bowels, nothing can be effectually done to prevent the occurrence of the most formidable of these evils. In many cases where these evils are present, the relieving of the pressure of the tooth against the gun will be the most effectual service. This is done by cutting down upon the tooth through the gum-an operation which may be the means of saving the life of a child.

DENUDA'TION is a term used in geology to denote the wearing down of the land by natural agencies. The forces effecting this degradation are known as denuding forces, and they would, were their action unchecked, in process of time wash away all the dry land of the planet into the sea. A calculation, made on fairly reliable data, gives 6,000,000 years as the period within which this result would be achieved, supposing denuding agencies to work at the same rate that they now do, and also to be counteracted by no other forces.

Different kinds of denudation are recognized, and they are distinguished from each other by the agencies effecting them. These kinds of denudation are classed under the two great heads-(1) sub-aërial and (2) marine denudation. Before describing these in detail, it should be remarked that denudation includes two actions, disintegration and transportation. Only such portions of the surface as are in a sufficiently fine state of division can be washed away, and the processes, such as the action of frost, by which hard and solid portions are reduced to the requisite state of division, falls under the head of disintegration. An active transporting agent may be a comparatively weak disintegrating one, and vice versa. See DISINTEGRATION.

1. Sub-aerial denudation is the sum of the effects of all disintegrating and denuding agents, except the sea. The chief denuding agents to be considered under this head are rivers and glaciers. Rivers exercise considerable disintegrating power, though in this respect their effect is less than that of the atmosphere and atmospheric moisture. But they are the most active and powerful of transporting agents. The turbidity of rivers, especially after rain, is a matter of common experience; but in addition to what is thus visibly carried down to the sea, there is a large amount dissolved in the water, such dissolved matter being left behind on evaporation, and constituting the "fur" of kettles and boilers. Every brook and streamlet washes down loose soil, adding to it fine particles worn from its own bed and soluble matter taken up from the earth through which it flows. All this is carried into the river, and in very great part carried by the river into the sea. Some idea of the activity with which denudation is going on may be obtained by considering the estimated amount carried down by some rivers. This amount, in the case of six rivers on which observations have been taken, is given in the following table of Dr. Geikie's, the third column giving the amount of sediment discharged (in cubic feet) yearly:

This means that the Mississippi removes one foot of soil from the surface of its basin in 6000 years; the Upper Ganges takes 823 years, the Hoang-ho 1464 years, the Rhone 1528, the Danube 6846, and the Po 729 years to produce the same result. If the whole of the North American continent were being denuded at the same rate as the Mississippi basin, it would be worn to the sea level in 4,500,000 years; Asia would disappear in 930,000 years if exposed to unchecked denudation as active as that of the Upper Ganges basin; and the denudation rate of the Po would remove Europe in less than 500,000 years. It

must be remembered that these calculations refer to sedimentary, and do not include soluble matter. Calculations based on data afforded by rainfall, and the amount of it returned to the sea, give 5,500,000 years as the period within which (under circumstances the same as those now existing) the British Islands would be worn away. It must be borne in mind that the references just made are to river basins, where the denudation would be far more active than at any other parts of a country. The denudation of mountainous or unwatered tracts would be enormously less than that quoted above.

d

The diagram illustrates the wearing down of a plain | (the original level of which is marked by a dotted line) by a river and its tributaries, a river valley being thus formed. The action of glaciers is much less extensive, and far more local than that of rivers. But the moraine mounds left by the old Alpine glaciers show that the results of their action are by no means insignificant. [See GLACIER.] Glaciers carry down detached blocks and fragments on their upper surface, while they erode the ground over which they pass, scraping and wearing it down. The scraped-off particles are washed down by streams resulting from the melt ing of the ice of the glacier itself. Sometimes these streams grind the eroded sand, &c., round and round, producing curious excavations called .. moulins" and "pot-holes." In Norway these holes attain a very large size, and are known as giants' kettles." Professor Ramsay believes that the rocky lake-basins of Northern Europe and America were formed by the scooping action of glaciers. Where glaciers reach the sea the end of the sheet breaks off as an iceberg every now and then, and the detritus brought down by it is gradually distributed over the sea bottom as the iceberg melts.

2. Marine denudation is a far smaller item in the wearing down of the land than sub-aërial denudation, but its results are distinctly traceable. It is effected by the wearing action of tide and waves, the coast being continually battered, worn down to shingle and sand, which are carried down by the retreating tide, and sometimes washed away by currents. The wear is of course enormously increased during storms. The amount worn away from any coast depends greatly on the nature of that coast. Thus the soft rocks of the east coast of England are in parts worn away at the rate of 3 or 4 yards a year, while the wear on the hard rocks of the west coast is probably under a foot in 100 years. Allowing 10 feet per 100 years as an average loss by marine denudation, it would take 52,800 for a strip of one mile broad to be washed away. Taking the average loss by sub-aërial denudation as one foot in 6000 years, the sea would only have worn away from 70 to 80 miles from the European coast-line by the time that the Continent was destroyed by sub-aërial denudation. Geological history is the record of enormous denudation during past times, each stratified system being derived from the waste of preceding ones, or, in the first case, from pre-existing rocks.

DENVER, the capital of Colorado, United States, stands in front of the eastern range of the Rocky Mountains, at the height of 5375 feet above the sea-level. It has grown up with extraordinary rapidity, is a well-built, fine town,

and has many benevolent, literary, and educational institutions. The scenery around is magnificent. The town is a chief station on the railway from New York to San Francisco. The population in 1880 was 35,269.

DE'ODAR (Cedrus Deodara) is very closely related to the CEDAR OF LEBANON, differing from it especially in the cones being shortly stalked, and the scales falling when the cone is ripe; the leaves also are longer and more distinctly three-sided. It is a native of the Himalayan region, where it is held in veneration by the natives as the "Devadara," or god-tree. The wood is so durable that timber taken from temples erected more than 400 years ago is still sound. It is close-grained, and takes an excellent polish. The resinous tubes are so abundant that laths made of it are used as candles. The natives of North-western India use the turpentine medicinally. This tree reaches the height of from 50 to 150 feet, with a diameter sometimes of 10 feet. It grows in its native haunts at an elevation of from 7000 to 12,000 feet, forming large forests.

In our own climate the deodar, in its young state, is a very beautiful tree. It is formal, yet with graceful pendulous branches, and is well suited for growth on lawns where larger trees would be out of place. It grows faster than the cedar of Lebanon, and has been known to attain considerably more than 50 feet in thirty-eight years. It was introduced in 1822.

This

DEO'DORIZERS are those bodies which neutralize or destroy putrefactive odours. Charcoal in its various forms is the most efficacious. This body produces a deodorizing effect upon almost every variety of decaying animal or vegetable matter, and, mixed with the contents of our common sewers, it sweetens them almost immediately. Charcoal has been found so effective in the deodorization of miasmata that it has been adopted in sanitarian measures for removing the smells of drains, cesspools, graveyards, and other places where animal and vegetable offal has been allowed to accumulate. peculiar action in charcoal is the result of three properties its remarkable porosity, the special affinity which it exhibits for noxious gases, and the oxidizing influence it exercises upon the substances it absorbs. So powerful is the affinity of charcoal for strong-smelling substances that if a tablespoonful, finely powdered, be shaken up with a pint of stinking ditch water or sewage, and the mixture filtered, the water will pass through bright and clear, and with neither taste nor odour. If the same be mixed with porter or wine, the colour, odour, and taste, by a kind of chemical action, will altogether disappear. The substances

or populous; so that the deputies are all, according to our phrase, county members. Since the Revolution of 1848 the mode of voting is direct and by ballot, and the suffrage may be exercised by every male of twenty-one years of age. Each arrondissement has a court of justice, entitled tribunal de première instance (tribunal of first instance), which, except in a very few cases, has its sittings at the capital of the arrondissement. These courts commonly consist of three or four ordinary and two or three supplementary judges. To each court there is a procureur général, or public prosecutor; and where the court consists of two or more sections (as is the case in large towns) there are deputy procureurs. Each department has a tribunal criminel (criminal court), or cour d'assises (assize court), consisting of a president, who is a counsellor of the High Court to the jurisdiction of which the department is subject, two ordinary judges, and two supplementary judges. To each court is attached a procureur and a greffier, or registrar. These courts, except in a few instances, have their seat at the capital of the department. Besides these courts, there are, in different parts of France, tribunals, called High Courts, consisting of from twelve to thirty-three salaried judges. Each of these courts has under its jurisdiction several departments. There is an appeal from them on questions of law, not of fact, to the supreme court, Cour de Cassation, at Paris. [See CASSATION.] The departments are also grouped into twenty-one divisions militaires, or military districts, the headquarters of which are fixed usually at the capital of one of the included departments. Each military division is under the command of a general field officer, who is immediately subject to the minister of war. The departments are also grouped into divisions for other objects of central governinent-1, as to bridges and highways; 2, forests; 3, mines.

to the English. Where they differ the Scotch law approaches more nearly to the Roman.

DEPOSIT, in geology, a term much used to characterize sedimentary or aqueous rocks made by the denudation and deposit of other formations. They are named according to the conditions under which they were formed, as marine, when found in the sea; lacustrine, in lakes; and fluviatile, in rivers, &c. See DEPOSITION.

DEPOSITION, in law, means the giving of public testimony, but as applicable to English law the word is used to signify the testimony of a witness in a judicial proceeding reduced to writing. Informations upon oath, and the evidence of witnesses before magistrates and coroners, are reduced into writing in the very words used by the witnesses, or as near as possible thereto.

The term "deposition" was also applied to the evidence formerly taken in Chancery cases. Such evidence was taken in written answers to interrogatories, which were also in writing, either by commissioners appointed for that purpose in the particular cause, or the witness was questioned by counsel and the "examiner" of the court wrote down his answers, to be read by the judge, who had never heard the witness or seen his manner or bearing. The Judicature Act of 1875 directed that in all divisions of the High Court witnesses shall be examined in open court. The only exception made was that the court may, for special reasons, allow depositions or affidavits to be read.

For purposes of education France has twenty-five university academies; each of these is governed by a rector and two inspectors, comprises several faculties, and is connected with the communal and other colleges spread | over the departments under its jurisdiction. University academies are established in most instances in those towns in which High Courts are held.

DEPOS IT, in law, has various meanings. A proper deposit (the Roman depositum) signities a movable thing which a man puts in the hands of another to keep till it is asked back, without anything being given to the depositary for his trouble. Judge Story's work on "Bailments," one of the best authorities on this subject, defines a deposit as "a bailment of goods to be kept by the bailee without reward, and delivered according to the object and purpose of the trust." The depositary is bound to take care of the thing, and to make good any damage that happens to it through fraudulent design (Lat. dolus) or gross neglect. In a case in which a person had been intrusted with money and placed it in his own cash-box, the fact of his having taken as much care of the deposit as of his own money did not acquit him of gross negligence. Money is sometimes said to be deposited with a banker, but such a deposit is a loan which the banker is bound to repay on demand, with or without interest, according to the agreement. Specific coin may be a deposit, like anything else, if the agreement be that the specific money must be returned. Any other use of the term deposit than here explained is an improper use of the word, and any other transaction which is called deposit will be found on examination to be something different from deposit.

The law of Scotland in relation to deposit is very similar

the witness could not be then produced.

The Court of Chancery now, however, only forms one division of the High Court, and each division has equal powers and jurisdiction in regard to evidence, and in all matters in which equity as well as law may be concerned. In practice cases of a special character which formerly went before the Exchequer Court still go to the Exchequer Division of the High Court, Chancery cases to the Chancery Division, &c., and if a person is in the possession of property at present undisputed, and who has therefore no means of making his title the subject of judicial investigation, but which, nevertheless, may be materially affected by the evidence of living witnesses, it is the Chancery Division which would, on petition, allow witnesses to be examined in order to perpetuate testimony. The High Court has also the power, if it be considered necessary in actions pending before it, to order the examination of witnesses residing abroad, or, in fact, of any witness, and may order the deposition so taken to be used in evidence.

Depositions are not admitted as evidence in the High Court unless the witness is dead, or, from some cause beyond the control of the party seeking to read the deposition, cannot be produced, or against any other persons than the parties to the proceeding in which they were taken, or claimants under them, and who had the opportunity of cross-examining the witness. In cases relating to a custom, prescription, or pedigree, where mere reputation would be good evidence, a deposition may be received as against a stranger.

The Scottish law on this subject is now very similar to that of England. The Scottish courts seem always to have possessed inherent powers to examine witnesses on commission where the witness was aged, infirm, resident abroad, or where there was reason to fear loss of his evidence. Formerly, indeed, it was the practice to take evidence in