the port is about 900, of 60,000 tons burden. On the coast lobsters are taken in great numbers and shipped to the London markets. Christiansand was founded in 1641 by Christian IV., king of Denmark, who intended to make it the principal naval port of his dominions. CHRISTIANSTAD, a strongly fortified town in southern Sweden, is the capital of the district called Christianstad-Län. It has 8000 inhabitants. The town is built on the Helge, which is crossed by a fine bridge. The streets are straight and wide, and the houses mostly built of wood. It has manufactures of gloves, linen, and woollen goods, and some trade in timber, pitch, and chemicals. The lake Helge Sjör, near the town, covering a surface of 30,000 acres, has been drained. It had long been growing very shallow, and was said to be the cause of unhealthiness to the town. A canal 100 feet in width connects Christianstad with the port of Ahus, by which large ships are enabled to reach it, and a railway joins it with Malmö. The old fortifications have been transformed into ornamental walks for the townspeople, and have added much to the pleasantness of the town. Christianstad was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1614, and it was the place in which the revolution began which ended in establishing the power of Gustavus III. in Sweden. CHRISTI'NA, QUEEN (of Sweden), the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus by Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, was born on the 8th of December, 1626. Gustavus fell at Lützen, in November, 1632, and Christina was placed in the hands of five regents, but in 1644 she took the reins of government into her own hands. She made peace with Denmark, obtaining the cession of some territory to Sweden; she pressed on the peace with Germany, and finally became a party to the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, by which she obtained three votes in the diet of the Germanic empire and the cession of Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen, and Verden. When pressed by the states to marry, she constantly and firmly refused; but in 1649 she named her cousin Gustavus as her successor, though soon after having done so she had herself crowned with great pomp under the title of king. Having now no wars to engage her attention, she gave herself up with all the energy of her character to patronizing artists and men of letters, the most celebrated of whom were Vossius, Heinsius, and Descartes. The intercourse of Christina with these foreigners, many of whom were suspected of infidelity, a growing dislike to the influence of the Lutheran Church in the government of the country, and perhaps a desire for notoriety, first induced her to abandon her original creed; and then she became a secret convert to the Roman Catholic religion. Knowing this faith to be irreconcilable with the possession of the crown, and finding herself growing weary of living in Sweden, where also her popularity was diminishing, she finally resolved on renouncing the crown in 1654; and on the 16th of June her abdication took place with great solemnity. She afterwards resided chiefly in France, but died at Rome in 1689. Though nominally a private person after her abdication she claimed to retain sovereign rights, and her equerry and lover Monaldeschi having gravely displeased her she had him executed in her presence during her residence in France. Probably her mind was not sound at all times. In 1660 she attempted to resume the crown on the death of her cousin Charles Gustavus, but was rejected on account of her religion. See also CLEMENT XI. CHRISTMAS, the festival of Christ's nativity, transferred from 6th January to 25th December by Pope Julius I. (337-352). The real date of the nativity had been utterly lost, and some Christians celebrated it on 1st January, some even in March or September, but the many favoured 6th January, until the best inquiries of Pope Julius, as we learn from ST. CHRYSOSTOM, almost a contemporary of that pope, led to the new date of 25th December being preferred. There is but little doubt that Julius committed a serious error, since shepherds would not "keep their flocks by night" on the hills of Judea in the rainy inclement month of December. One must admit with regret that although the date of the crucifixion can be fixed with tolerable accuracy, the date of the nativity is absolutely unknown. It is extremely probable that so momentous an event was considered by the mystical early Christians to | have happened in all likelihood at one of the obvious divisions of the year, and that the corresponding event, the Annunciation," occurred at another of such divisions. Accordingly the former would be gladly thought to be rightly fixed at the winter solstice, and the latter, therefore, at the vernal equinox. But the solstice shifted, wing to the errors of the calendar, and on the reformation of the calendar by Gregory the accumulated errors were only partly annulled, so that Christmas Day no longer falls on the solstice, but four days after it. With the solstice also was connected the great festival of Saturn, the SATURNALIA, among the Romans; and according to the universal custom with the early Christian statesmen when Christianity first became the religion of the empire under Constantine the pagan festival was retained, but turned to the service of the Christian church. With the Saturnalia also, among the northern Teutonic peoples, the ceremonies of YULE were mingled, and in Britain even the obscure Druidical rites of the earliest known Celtic dwellers in the land survive in the form of the sacred mistletoe bough. The Druidical mistletoe and holly, the Teutonic yulelog and blazing fir-tree, which symbolize the reviving sun, and the license and gift-bearing season of the pagan Saturnalia, all join in making up the Christmas festivities in England. In Scotland the day was never held an occasion for holiday and merry making. CHRISTMAS BOX is the customary yearly gift to servants and dependants in England, answering to the étrennes of the French New Year's Day. The Christmas box has grown into a considerable tax upon householders, every postman, water turncock, gasman, sweep, dustman, &c., claiming his gift almost as a right, but like other Christmas customs pushed hitherto to excess, it now tends to decline, perhaps somewhat unduly. Its name arises from the fact that at Christmas-tide of old the church poor-box was carried round and the proceeds distributed-a custom which came to be imitated by apprentices with their masters' customers, and thence by other persons. The Christmas boxes were usually held to be due on the day after Christmas Day, 26th December, hence usually called Boxing Day" in England. CHRISTMAS CAROLS, once universal, still linger in country parishes. They are short hymns commemorating the song of the angels in the gospel narrative, and many are most ancient. The carol was undoubtedly originally, like the Greek chorus (another variation of the same word, arising from the Aryan root/KAR, to roll), a song and dance combined; indeed, the Welsh word carol still retains the simple meaning of "dance" alone. The Christmas singers of the Nowels (Nouvelles, "good news") might well dance for joy as they sang their carols. The French Noel (Christmas) has its origin indicated by the last sentence. Returning to the antiquity of Christmas carols we may say that a Latin one of the fourth century by the poet Prudentius, extending to twenty-nine stanzas, still exists. It begins "Quid est quod arctum circulum ("Why does the sun returning desert his narrow round? Is it because Christ is born to earth, who increaseth the beams of his light?") The earliest printed collection of English Christmas carols was made by Wynkyn de Worde in 1521, and it would seem odd that they should be mostly of a convivial character did we not know the passion in medieval times for mixing the sacred with the secular, or as Shakspeare ("Winter's Tale") says, "singing psalms to hornpipes." The very old carol which begins as follows is still a great favourite with country folk, and as it is one of the oldest, so is it one of the quaintest and best: "God rest you, merry gentlemen, CHRISTMAS ROSE. See HELLEBORUS. CHRISTOPHER, ST. (the "Christ-bearer") received his name because he carried Christ across a stream in Syria. He had been converted by a hermit and baptized, and as a mark of penitence undertook to carry strangers across the deep ford of the stream, a task for which his gigantic stature and strength well fitted him. Once a little child presented himself to be carried, but the giant found his burden grow heavier and heavier till he almost sank in midstream, and had the greatest difficulty in reaching the opposite bank with his burden safe; as for himself he was quite exhausted. Then the Lord revealed himself, for it was he who had tested the giant's fortitude and courageous fulfilment of his task, and changed his name from Adokimos to Christopheros. Christopher worked miracles, and converted so many thousands that the prefect of Syria tortured him most brutally during the persecutions under the Emperor Decius. His unexampled strength under torture, and the courage with which he finally met his martyrdom on the 25th July, 254, converted even the cruel prefect to Christianity. St. Christopher's day is 25th July. CHRISTOPHER'S, ST., or ST. KITT'S, one of the West India Islands belonging to Great Britain, is divided from NEVIS by a narrow channel. It is 46 miles W.N.W. from Antigua, comprising an area of 68 square miles, and contains 30,000 inhabitants: The soil is very fertile. The island is 23 miles in length by 5 in breadth, and contains many rugged precipices and barren mountains, the principal of which, Mount Misery, an extinct volcano, rises to 4314 feet above the sea. The climate is healthy, but violent hurricanes sometimes occur. The chief exports are tobacco, rum, sugar, and molasses. The principal towns are Basseterre, the capital, and Sandy Point. St. Christopher was discovered, in 1493, by Columbus, who gave it the name it bears; but it was not settled till 1623, when a party of English took possession of it. After many disputes for its occupation with the French and Spaniards, it was finally ceded to Great Britain at the peace of Utrecht in 1713. CHROMATIC, in music. A chromatic note in music is a note not forming part of the diatonic scale. Thus, F is a chromatic note in the key of C major, because the only F in the diatonic scale of that key is F. But since F is a component of the closely-allied scale of G major, and might occur in the course of a passage modulating from C to G, it should not then be regarded as a chromatic note in the key of C, since it is a diatonic note of the new key. The rule is therefore that those notes only are chromatic which are not notes of the diatonic scale, and which occur in the course of a passage wholly in one key, the notes before and after the one in question being diatonic notes of that key; or in other words, chromatic notes are those which, although not belonging to the diatonic scale of the key, yet do not cause modulation. In order, therefore, for our F to be in the key of C-that is, to be a chromatic note-it must be at once followed by an F, or by some other note definitely characteristic of the key of C, and must have been also preceded by such a note. The major third and sixth of the major key are chromatic to the minor key of the same name, and rice versá the minor third and minor sixth of the minor key are chromatic to the tonic major. Although any note of the diatonic scale can, in passages of melody, be chromatically inflected either by a sharp or flat, yet for purposes of harmony, or for the construction of the chromatic scale, only certain chromatic notes are available without danger | of causing modulation out of the key. CHROMATIC CONCORDS in a minor key are the major common chords on the minor second with its inversion, and on the supertonic with its inversion. All common chords special to the minor key are chromatic to the major, except only the minor common chord on the tonic and its inversions (disallowed). Also, the chord of the sixth on the subdominant, with a minor third, which is of course diatonic to the minor key, becomes chromatic to the major key. As with chromatic notes in general, the test of these chords being chromatic and not chords foreign to the key (forming part of another key) is that they can and ought to be preceded and followed by chords formed of the ordinary diatonic notes of the key. The following passage is to be regarded as wholly in the key of C major: The second chord in this example is the chromatic common chord on the supertonic (in the second inversion); the fifth chord is that on the minor sixth of the key, and its successor is that chord of the sixth on the subdominant above mentioned-both the latter being diatonic to the minor key, but chromatic in this place. CHROMATIC SCALE, THE, is a scale of twelve semitones to the octave. It is produced by taking the whole seven major intervals of the major scale, adding to them the two minor intervals of the minor scale, and then, in addition to these, three further intervals, which therefore are the only ones in all strictness to be called chromatic, namely, the minor second, the augmented fourth, and the minor seventh. The first of these is the minor ninth and the last is the seventh of the chord of the key-note, while the second is the third of the chord of the supertonic (dominant of the dominant); so that they are all strictly notes of the key. See DISCORDS, FUNDAMENTAL. Thus taking the major scale of C C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C,. entirely composed of major or perfect intervals (reckoning each interval always from the key-note), we add Eb and Ab, the minor third and minor sixth characteristic of the corresponding key of C minor; and then we add Bb and Db, the (minor) seventh and minor ninth of the chord of the tonic, and also F, the (major) third of the chord of the supertonic (D). Thus we produce the chromatic scale of C, as under C, D, D, E, E, F, F, G, A, A, B5, B, C. This is frequently but quite incorrectly written (on some idea that it is "easier to read ") thus C, C, D, D2, E, F, F, G, G, A, A, B, C, upwards, and C, B, B5, A, Ab, G, Gb, F, E, Eb, D, Db, C, downwards. We add the chromatic scale of Eb to show the principle carried out in a key with a more difficult signature. Whatever freedoms may be taken with this scale for the convenience of the performer, the student of musical theory or the composer can only think of the scale as given above; otherwise he is at once landed in the midst of difficulties of modulation and others from which he cannot readily extricate himself. In conjunction with this article read those on DIATONIC, KEY, and SCALE. CHRO'MIC ACID. See CHROMIUM. CHRO'MITE, or chromic iron, is the mineral from which most of the chromium of commerce is obtained, the compounds of that metal being valuable as pigments. This mineral species is composed of the oxides of iron and chromium, and usually contains much alumina and magnesia as impurities. It crystallizes in the octahedral system generally as very perfect though small' octahedrons, is of a black or brownish-black colour, and has a specific gravity of about 4:47, hardness of 5.5. It resembles magnetite, but its chromium reactions are distinctive; and it is found in veins or imbedded masses in serpentine, and as fine disseminated grains is common in many rocks. CHRO'MIUM, a metal discovered by Vauquelin in the year 1797. He found it in a rare Siberian mineral, which contained lead, and was called, from its colour, red lead ore, but is also known as crocoisite, and found in the Ural, Uruguay, and Brazil. Chromium is obtained as a light green crystalline powder by reducing the sesquichloride with zinc. Its specific gravity is 6.81, according to Wohler. The appearance of the metal varies according to the circumstances under which it is reduced and the process by which it is made. It suffers but little change by exposure to the air; it conducts electricity, but is not magnetic. Its atomic weight is 26-2; symbol, Cr. It may be polished, and acquires a fine metallic lustre. It is very infusible, and hard enough to scratch glass. Heated in the air it gradually becomes covered with a film of green oxide. It burns brightly in oxygen gas, and in melting potassium chlorate, and in chlorine. It is soluble in hydrochloric and in sulphuric acid, but not in nitric acid. It does not occur in the free state, but it forms the colouring matter of many well-known minerals, such as green serpentine and the costly emerald. The most abundant ore is chromic iron or chromate of iron, from which its compounds are manufactured. The principal ores which contain chromium are-chromate of lead or crocoisite, subsesquichromate of lead or Phænicite, chromate of lead and copper or Vauquelinite, and as sesquioxide or chrome ochre. Most of these are found beautifully crystallized. Chromium combines with many of the elementary substances. Oxygen and chromium form three oxideschromic acid or trioxide of chromium (CrO3), obtained in splendid crimson deliquescent crystals. It destroys vegetable colouring matter, and combines with bases to form chromates. Another combination of oxygen and chromium forms the sesquioxide (Cr,O3). It has a fine green colour, and is much used as a pigment under the name of chrome green, and is also employed for staining glass and enamelling porcelain. It is extremely permanent and can be obtained in fine crystals, with a metallic lustre, and of great hardness. In this form it is not acted on very much by acids. There are several hydrates which are soluble in acids, forming highly-coloured salts. The protoxide (Cr,O) is soluble in strong acids, and the salts are generally of a purple colour. Chlorine and chromium combine to form two chlorides-the protochloride and sesquichloride. The former, or chromous chloride (CrCl), is a white suband sublimes in scales when gently heated in a close vessel. stance forming a blue solution. It has a reddish colour, The sesquichloride, or chromic chloride (CrCl), is a very beautiful salt. It sublimes into peach-coloured micaceous scales. It is slightly soluble in hot water, with a green solution. Chloro-chromic acid (CrOCI) is another remarkable compound. It is a dense liquid, blood-red by transmitted, black by reflected light. It has a specific gravity of 1.71, and boils at 118° C. (244° Fahr.) It is decomposed by water; by many inflammable bodies with detonation. Bromine and chromium form the sesquibromide (Cr,Br), a yellowish-green powder. The sesqui-iodide (Cr) is also green. Fluorine and chromium form a sesquifluoride (Cr.F3), a greenish powder; also a trifluoride (CrF), a red fuming liquid which acts rapidly on glass. It is decomposed by water, and gives off a dense red vapour very irritating to the lungs. Sulphur and chromium form a sesquisulphide (Cr4S3); it is of a dark gray colour, and inflammable when heated in the air. Phosphorus and chromium form a phosphide (Cr,P), a black substance slightly acted upon by some of the acids. The salts of chromium are next to be noticed. There is perhaps no metallic substance which more perfectly acts as an acid to bases and as a base to acids than this metal, the difference depending, of course, upon its degree of oxidation-that is, whether it be an acid or an oxide. The compounds of the chromic acid and bases, or the chromates, will first be mentioned. Chromate of potassium (KCrO2) crystallizes in double six-sided pyramids of a pale lemon-yellow colour, and is very poisonous; it has a bitter taste, but it is soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, and has great tinctorial power. Bichromate of potassium, or acid chromate (K202Cr¿03), is a doubly oblique prismatic garnet-red crystal; it has a penetrating and bitter taste, and reddens litmus; it is soluble in water, unalterable by exposure to air or moderate heat, but easily decomposed by many chemical agents. It is much used as an oxidizing agent in many processes, more especially in the manufacture of dyes and pigments, and is an article of considerable commercial importance, known as "bichrome." Chromate and bichromate of sodium are very analagous to those of potassium; the first is yellow and the second red. Chromate of calcium is a light yellow powder. Chromate of magnesium forms yellow crystals. Chromate of barium is a yellow solid, insoluble in water, but decomposed by sulphuric acid. Bichromate of chromium is an uncrystallized solid, soluble in water and in alcohol. Bichromate of iron is a brown liquid. Chromate of manganese is also a brown liquid. Chromate of lead (PbCrO2) is a fine yellow substance, insoluble in water but miscible with oil; it is extensively employed as a pigment, under the name of chrome yellow, and in calico printing. Basic chromate of lead (2Pb2OCr03) is a fine scarlet substance, insoluble in water, also extensively used in dyeing and calico printing. These are the most important chromates. The salts which contain oxide of chromium as a base are but little employed. We shall mention only the most distinctly marked of them. Nitrate of chromium is a reddish substance, readily soluble in water. Sulphate of chromium is a dark-coloured substance, not readily soluble in water, nor altered by exposure to air. The arseniate, carbonate, and phosphate of chromium are all insoluble compounds. Chromium is recognized among other bodies by yielding an emerald-green glass when fused with borax before the blowpipe, by forming a soluble chromate when fused with an alkali, which precipitates barium salts pale yellow, lead salts bright yellow, mercurious salts brick red, and silver salts crimson. CHROMOSPHERE, a word of rather barbarous formation (chromatosphere would be more correct), is the name given to the brilliant coloured envelope of flaming gases surrounding the yet more brilliant and far hotter PHOTOSPHERE or nucleus. From the chromosphere burst up those red "prominences," chiefly of glowing hydrogen, which reach in a few minutes astounding heights from the sun's furnace, heights varying from 20,000 to 100,000 miles, spreading then laterally, and floating for days at these great elevations as clouds in the sun's atmosphere. Hence its name "sphere, or envelope, of colour." spectroscope detects also sodium, iron, magnesium, barium, calcium, strontium, cadmium, manganese, sulphur, and some other elements in the bases of the prominences in a gaseous form; and these substances, therefore, form part of the chromosphere. See SUN. The CHRONICLE, in English history. The deeply interesting national record of events from year to year, which is almost sacred in English eyes, the ancient "Eng | lish Chronicle" (or Anglo-Saxon Chronicle), was thrown into its present form under Alfred the Great, probably by the king's command. It is not unlikely that the king wrote part of it. It is "the oldest English history, the book which you should learn to reverence next after your Bible and Homer," finely says Mr. Freeman, our greatest authority for early English history. It is true that there is one older record, a contemporary account by a monk named Gildas, of the "English Conquest" of Britain, valuable also as being written from the British side, but it is so diffuse that its value is much impaired, and it only applies to Kent. The English Chronicle," on the other hand, begins with brief records copied under Alfred (at the close of the ninth century) from the then still existing records of the English conquest. The best historians consider the conquest to have begun in 449, and to have lasted for a century and a half in its slow bloodstained progress, and these records cover all the southern kingdoms. Freeman ("Old English History "), Green ("History of the English People "), and other competent judges, consider the statements of the Chronicle in its earlier portions undoubtedly historic, though, as is most natural to expect, not without mythical intermixture. The conquest of Mercia (Mid Britain) is, however, left in darkness, and but faint light is thrown upon that of Northumbria. Added to these scanty but priceless and venerable annals of the birth of England, the first pages of the "English Chronicle" contain short notices of the kings and bishops, principally of Wessex; and large insertions from Bede's "Ecclesiastical History" (finished in 734), another sacred English relic of the past, which Alfred himself had translated from the original Latin. [See BEDE.] After the period which is covered by Bede's history, other additions from sources now lost fill out in the Chronicle the meagre records of dates. With Ethelwolf the annals broaden into history, and when the time of Alfred is reached the Chronicle starts into "vigorous narrative full of life and originality, and marks the gift of a new power to the English tongue. It remains the first vernacular history of any Teutonic people, the earliest and most venerable relic of Teutonic prose" (Green). Geoffrey Gaimar, writing in the twelfth century, says that King Alfred had at Winchester a copy of the Chronicle fastened by a chain, so that all who wished might read. Professor Morley (“First Sketch of Eng. Lit." Lond., 1881) believes that the king appointed monastic historiographers, who each set down all local things worthy of remembrance at the close of each year, and from whose collected records the year's chronicle was compiled. In some such way as this the " English Chronicle" was kept up from Alfred's time till the Norman Conquest, and for three generations after that. Its last entry is the accession of Henry II. in 1154. In the article BRUNANBURH one of the fine outbursts of verse which occasionally adorn the Chronicle is spoken of. The English Chronicle" is in Old English, or what used to be called Anglo-Saxon. Although the English Chronicle" is pre-eminent, it is not by any means alone so soon as we reach the times of the Norman Conquest. The earliest of the so-called monastic chronicles is that of Marianus Scotus, who wrote a Latin history from the creation to 1083, and who died at Mayence in 1086. Florence, a monk of Worcester, rewrote the Latin history of Scotus, but added details translated into Latin from the English Chronicle," and as he worked from a fine full copy now lost, his quotations have served to preserve many valuable records. Florence of Worcester's Chronicle, called "Chronicon ex Chronicis," is carried up to the year 1117. He died in 1118. The work was afterwards continued in Worcester monastery till 1141. Eadmer of Canterbury, a Benedictine, also wrote a chronicle of his time, that is, from the Conquest to the year 1122, very rich in details of the eventful life of his friend the Archbishop Anselm. But the finest of these monastic (Latin) chronicles are due to Henry I.'s reign, and are the very valuable Chron- | icles of William of Malmesbury and of Ordericus Vitalis, both of them, singularly enough, extending to the same year, 1142, when it is presumable the good monks died. Orderic was born about 1075, William in 1095. All these monkish chroniclers begin from the very beginning, mostly from the creation, or from the birth of Christ, &c., rapidly skimming over the earlier parts of their impossible task, growing fuller as they reach the times of letters and records, and finally rewarding the explorer of their dim pages with fresh personal records of events of which the chronicler or one of his friends had oftentimes been an eye-witness. Nearly every monastery had its own poor chronicle, of the greatest value to itself however. Those mentioned in this article are but the chief of them, selected by historians as the richest and most accurate. The Chronicle of Orderic, a Benedictine monk of Normandy, in the last seven books of it, gives a dry but conscientious and trustworthy account (enriched with copies of letters and reports of councils, &c.) of the political events of his time in Normandy and England. The Chronicle of William of Malmesbury, who was so engrossed in his chosen work that he refused to be made abbot of that monastery, is as interesting and picturesque as that of his senior is bald. The monk was the friend of Robert, earl of Gloucester, the illegitimate son of Henry I. and the life-long enemy of Stephen; and to Earl Robert William dedicated his chronicle. It breaks off with the story of the Empress Matilda's escape over the ice from Oxford to Wallingford, in white garments; which, ends he, "I purpose describing more fully, if by God's grace I shall ever learn the truth of it from those who were present." The careful desire for exactness in detail shown in this sentence is characteristic of the faithful monk. The Chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth, a Welsh priest, was also dedicated to Earl Robert of Gloucester. It is a history of British kings from Brut, great grandson of Eneas of Troy, to King Arthur with the Round Table. It may have a basis of British legends now lost, but it is for the most part certainly a romance written with the quaint circumstantial detail of a genuine chronicle. Geoffrey was made Bishop of St. Asaph. He died in 1154. The work of Wace must also be mentioned. A prebend of Bayeux in Stephen's reign and the beginning of that of Henry II., he amplified a Latin chronicle of the Norman Conquest into the "Roman de Rou" (so frequently quoted by Freeman in his great history), full of all sorts of valuable details, and practically almost contemporary with the events it records. Wace died in 1184. The valuable Chronicle of Henry of Huntingdon was also written in Stephen's reign, recording contemporary events. Then there comes a blank up to the death of Thomas A'Becket; but after this the chronicles are numerous and important. The one of greatest value is the great Chronicle of Benedict of Peterborough, covering the years 1169 to 1192, with its equally valuable continuation by Roger of Howden (or Hoveden), written chiefly under Richard I., and carrying on the annals to 1201. This chronicle was edited by Professor Stubbs in the series published by direction of the Master of the Rolls (Lond. 1858 to 1873), and is the primary authority for its period. William of Newborough and Giraldus Cambrensis are also of this time. Then for the history of the reign of John and the earlier part of Henry II., the Chronicle of Roger of Wendover, a monk of St. Alban's (died 1237), is an excellent source of information—a manly and fairly impartial history of the half century up to 1235, leaning rather towards the side of authority however. The "Flores Historiarum" (Flowers of History), Roger's work, ends with 1235; but Matthew, called of Paris, a brother monk of St. Alban's, took it up, enlarged it greatly, and continued it in a chronicle he called "Historia Major," whose plain dealing with the tyrannous practices of popes and kings is really remarkable for the time. Matthew Paris' Chronicle runs down to 1273. He had studied at the University of Paris (whence his surname), and probably his travels had freed his mind, so that for the first time since the Conquest we find in Matthew's work a national as distinct from a loval sentiment. Matthew of Paris is at once the greatest and the last of the true monastic chroniclers. His reputation was so great in his own time that the king himself (Henry III.) contributed information to him when on his frequent visits to St. Alban's Abbey. Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle, written by a monk of Gloucester in rhymed English verse for the use of the common people, extends from the siege of Troy to the death of Henry III. in 1272. It was written about 1297. It is far more valuable to the student of literature than to the historian. Walter of Hemingford and Robert of Avesbury wrote chronicles valuable for their contemporary notices of Edward III.'s reign; but the true vein of the chroniclers was worked out, and history turns elsewhere for its materials. One later chronicle is of value, the compilation of Thomas Walsingham, the chief copyist in St. Alban's scriptorium. He produced, from the labours of several monkish scribes of the abbey subsequent to Matthew of Paris, a chronicle extending from 1272 to the end of the reign of Henry V. in 1422. He wrote up to nearly the date of his own death, as his famous predecessors had done, and gave an account of contemporary matters of some worth. We pass now to the Tudor chronicles. Fabyan's Chronicle in English prose was the first of these, and extends to the year 1504. Fabyan was a somewhat wealthy citizen and alderman of London. He died in 1512. His successor was Polydore Vergil, an Italian, who became Archdeacon of Wells under Henry VII., and whose chronicle covers that king's reign and the first few years of Henry VIII. It is in Latin. Vergil died in Italy in 1555. Bernard André, an Austin friar, although a Frenchmen, was in high favour at Henry VII.'s court, and was tutor to Prince Arthur, elder brother of Henry VIII. He undertook to write yearly annals for Henry VII., and no doubt fulfilled his promise, but unhappily all are lost except those of two years. He seems to have continued his work, for there are also extant by him portions of a Chronicle of Henry VIII., the years 1515 and 1521 being complete. Fabyan had a worthy successor in Edward Hall, born in Shropshire at the end of the fifteenth century. Hall's Chronicle has for full title "The Union of the two noble and illustre families of Lancastre and Yorke," and is carried on to the year 1532. Hall was a Cambridge scholar, and afterwards studied at Oxford; he was common serjeant and judge in the sheriff's court. He died in 1537. Hall's Chronicle was only published after his death. It was proscribed under Philip and Mary. It is a fearless book and of great value; and its greatest value is of a kind not dreamt of by its compiler, for from its pages the immortal Shakspeare drew his knowledge of English history in part, being indebted for the remainder to the nearly contemporary Holinshed. The monastic chroniclers had made the whole world circle round their abbey or their patron; these Tudor writers wrote in the desire that Englishmen should know what it behoved them to know of the life of their own country. Hall's Chronicle was completed by Richard Grafton, who also produced an abridgment of Hall in 1563, and a general “Manual of the Chronicles of England" (beginning as usual from the creation) in 1565, as well as a larger work of more specially English history, "A Chronicle at large of the Affayres of England and Kynges of the same," in 1569. Stow the antiquary, in 1561, also gave to the world a "Summary of English Chronicles;" and being assisted by Archbishop Parker when he was on the point of returning from starvation in literature to the comfortable subsistence he formerly |