parently far more humiliating than the performance of acts of a temporary duration. Among the rules touching the first-year men is, "That Every Freshman Shall be Obliged to Go any reasonable and proper and reasonable Errand when he is Sent by any Student in any Superior Class; and if he Shall refuse So to do he may be punished: provided. . . that no undergraduate Shall Send a Freshman anywhere in Studying Time, without Liberty first had from ye President or Oone of the Tutors."1 That this rule embodied a very vital condition in the undergraduate administration is evident from a vote passed in the College year of 1761-62 to the effect that the Senior Class, and not the Sophomores, shall have the immediate care of instructing the Freshmen in the rules of good manners and of going on errands.2

'Dexter's "Yale Biographies and Annals," vol. ii, p. 9.

• Ibid.,

p. 725.

Oliver Wollcot, Jr., of the Class of 1778, has left a description of a visit which he made to New Haven in 1773. "I went up to College in the evening, to observe the Scene of my future exploits, with emotions of awe and reverence. Men in black robes, white wigs, and high cocked hats; young men, dressed in camblet gowns, passed us in small groups. The men in Robes and Wigs, I was told, were Professors; the young men in Gowns were Students. There were young men in black silk Gowns, some with Bands, and others without. These were either Tutors in the College, or resident Graduates, to whom the title of Sir was accorded. When we entered the College Yard, a new scene was presented. There was a class who wore no Gowns, and who walked, but never ran or jumped, in the yard. They appeared much in awe, or looked surly, after they passed by the young men habited in Gowns and Staves. Some of the young Gownsmen treated those who wore neither Hats nor Gowns in the yard, with hardness, and what I thought indignity. I give an instance: 'Nevill, go to my room, middle story of old College, No. and take from it

a pitcher, fill it from the pump, place it in my room, and stay there till I return.' To such a mandate, delivered by a slender sprig to a sturdy Country Lad, apparently much his superior in Age and Strength, the answer might be various, according to circumstances and the temper of the Parties, viz., 'I have been sent on an errand.' 'Who sent you?' 'Tutor H.' Or the mandate might be submitted to, pleasantly with a smile, or contemptuously with a sneer. The domineering young men in Gowns, I was told by my conductors, were Scholars or Students of the Sophomore Class, and those without Hats and Gowns, and who walked in the yard, were Freshmen, who, out of the Hours of Study, were waiters or servants to the Authority, President, Professors, Tutors, and Undergraduates."-Dexter's "Yale Biographies and Annals," vol. iii, p. 467.

The College Commons has, ever since the sad days of Mrs. Eaton at Cambridge, embodied an important part of academic interest. Colleges have usually, in at least an unofficial way, endeavored to provide food for their students. The arrangements thus made have commonly represented a point of embarrassment for both the officer and the student. The rules at Yale College, in the middle of the eighteenth century, touching the Commons are exact. Tutors or Senior scholars are required to make a blessing at the table or to return thanks, and all the scholars are expected to attend to it decently and orderly, and to abstain from all clamorous talk. The requirement, too, that the tables shall be covered with decent linen cloths, and that they shall be washed once a week, is somewhat significant. The food was, in both amount and variety, well fitted to develop the severer elements of intellectual and moral character. The bill of fare, drawn up by the Corporation in the College year of 1740-41, is:

"For Breakfast: one loaf of bread for 4 (persons), which (the dough) shall weigh one pound.

"For Dinner for 4: one loaf of bread, as aforesaid; 2% pounds of beef, veal, or mutton, or 134 pounds of salt pork about twice a week in the summer time; one quart of beer; two pennyworth of sauce.

"For Supper for 4: two quarts of milk and one loaf of bread, when milk can be conveniently had; and when it cannot, then an apple-pie, which shall be made of 134 pounds of dough, 1/4 pound of hog's fat, two ounces sugar, and one peck of apples." 1

Six years later a similar bill of fare is reported, including beef and apple pie of equal depth and fatness, but containing the addition of beer for supper. Beer and wine early emerge as points of difficulty. At the Commencement of 1749, the Corporation voted to sell twenty barrels of strong beer in a year, but not a bit more, and they also voted that if any undergraduate shall buy any beer of any person in the town of New Haven excepting the butler, without having first obtained per

Dexter's "Yale Biographies and Annals," vol. i, p. 663.

mission from the president or tutor, he shall be fined a sum not to exceed one shilling. In the year following, the Corporation requested the president to signify to the people of New Haven that no one within three miles of the College shall sell any of the students strong liquor without a written order from one of the officers, and they also declared that any student who is detected in bringing liquor into the College without permission is to lose his social rank in the class. It is apparent, however, that the Trustees are not unwilling that the students shall drink beer, but are also eager that they shall drink good beer. In the College year of 1732-33 it was agreed by the Trustees "That every barrel of beer delivered to the butler at eight shillings per barrel shall be made of half a bushel of good barley malt after it is ground, or a bushel of good oat malt after it is ground, or a peck of good barley malt and a quart of good molasses, or half a bushel of good oat malt-after it is ground-and a quart of good molasses, and be mashed and well brewed and hopped."1

Other beverages beside beer, however, were the occasion of disturbance. Even tea is the subject of a vote passed at the Commencement of 1756. It is declared that "Whereas many of the Students have wasted much of their precious Time in going in each others Chambers and Drinking Tea in the afternoon: It is ordered that if any student shall drink tea out of his own Chamber in studying time in the afternoon, he shall be fined one Shilling." 2 Connected with the Commons as an almost integral part was what at both Yale and Harvard was known as the Buttery. The one having charge of the buttery was the butler. The butler was in the early time, and continued to be, an important college functionary-until 1801 at Harvard, and at Yale for sixteen years longer. His duties were many. He seems to have been a man of all work, but his chief duty, apparently, was to furnish food and drink to the students which they could not easily get in the Commons Hall. It was an office of some degree of serious significance. Stiles, who became President, held

'Dexter's "Yale Biographies and Annals,” vol. i, p. 472.

Ibid., vol. ii, p. 402.

it in the year 1748, and resigned from it on being appointed tutor. Among the buttery charges made against a student in one of the last years of the eighteenth century are noted cider, walnuts, pipes, biscuit, raisins, chestnuts, apples, ale, and black-ball (black-ball was a composition of blacking for the boots, to make them tight against snow and rain), tobacco, metheglin, cakes, hazelnuts, beer, paper, eggs, chalk, prunes, corkscrews, almonds, mead, pears, bowls, figs, watermelons, pomatum (a kind of white black-ball for the hair), looking-glasses, pitchers, butternuts, gin, and wine.1

The buttery, as an informal lunch counter, could not have failed to be a place of great fun. Throughout the first hundred years of Yale, and more than the first hundred and fifty years of Harvard, both the man and the place embodied an interesting and significant condition.

The undergraduate life was also affected by the social customs of the community. Sons of clergymen and of the colonial of ficers were regarded as of superior social grade to the sons of farmers, of merchants, and of mechanics. The higher social rank shows itself in various privileges in the dining room and in the recitation room, as well as in the college catalogue. It was not until the democratic spirit of the middle decades of the eighteenth century was manifest that the alphabetical order of placing the names in the catalogue was introduced. A member of the Class of 1769 at Yale writes to the founder of Dartmouth College, saying: "There appears a laudable ambition to excel in knowledge. It is not he that has got the finest coat or largest ruffles that is esteemed here at present. And as the class henceforward are to be placed alphabetically, the students may expect marks of distinction put upon the best scholars and speakers." 2

Throughout this period the expenses of the ordinary student were of an amount commensurate with the expense of living in the ordinary home whence came the student. At the Commencement of 1719 the Trustees voted that the annual charge for

"Yale College," vol. i, p. 449.

Dexter's "Yale Biographies and Annals," vol. iii, p. 264.

tuition should be fixed at thirty shillings, and for rent of room at twenty. Each graduate was obliged to pay, as a fee for his diploma, twenty shillings. The charge each week for diet, sweeping, and making beds was fixed at four shillings, fourpence. When one makes the adjustments for depreciation of the currency, it is apparently clear that the entire college expenses were considerably less than a hundred dollars.

Some of the more general and specific elements of college life are drawn from the diary of a Junior at Yale in the year 1762. The writer is Ebenezer Baldwin, who served as tutor from 1766 to 1770, and who, after a brief pastorate at Danbury, became chaplain in the Revolutionary Army in 1776. Among the records covering the months of March, April, and May are:

"26th. Studied my recitation in Tully de Oratore.

"27th, Saturday. Attended Coll. Exs. Heard Mr. Daggett preach two sermons on the trinity of ye Godhead, I John, v, 8. Read some in Milton's Samp. Agon.

"29. Attended Coll. Exs. Studied Homer almost ye whole day. Read a few pages in Tuscul. Disput. Had no recns to-day, our Tutor being out of town.

"30. Attended prayers. Studied Homer in forenoon. Writ argument on our forensick question, wh. was WHETHER ADAM KNEW YT ETERNAL DAMNATION WOULD BE HIS DOOM IF HE EAT THE FORBIDDEN FRUIT? Had no recitation. Afternoon worked out a question in Algebra and studied some in Septuagint.

"31. Studied Homer part of day, ye Septuagint part. Spent part in making a declamation.

"April 1. Studied Homer most of ye day. Some in Martin's Philosophy.

"2d. Homer in the forenoon and Septuagint. Read some in Pope's Homer.

"Thursday, 8. Attended Col. Exs. Studied my recitations. Remainder of day studying Septuagint.

"Friday, 9. Attended Col. Exs. Studied Homer in the forenoon. In the afternoon read in Martin's Philosophy and in Whiston's Ast (Astronomical) Principles of Religion. At night Nichols, Halliock, and Brewster were publickly admonished for having a Dance at Milford, and for their general conduct. Bull, for going to Milford without liberty and for his general conduct, was ordered to depart from College and to live under the