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masses as furnish to the eye a constant stimulus around pleasurable sensations. This is true of architecture, painting, sculpture. The appeal to the sense of hearing passes likewise from the realm of bald utility to the contemplative attitude in which beauty is perceived. The love of the human ear for concord of sweet sounds, rhythm, polished expression, reveals that deeper longing for accessory pleasurable sensations added over and above to the process of communication among men.

Esthetic enjoyment is a social experience which develops sympathy and the impulse to the exchange of views and impressions. The cultivation of beauty and of art gives new emotional experience, new forms of expression, widening our sympathies. Thus by its very nature it is social. Undoubtedly the quest for beauty deserves a place among the fundamental human interests. The scope of this study hinders us from going beyond the actual treatment found in our two authors. (See article on

Esthetics in the Brittanica, 11th edition.)1

1From Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, we take the following, from the definition of Beauty, vol. I. "Beauty in its ultimate or metaphysical character is an expression, a shining forth of spirit in some particular form or shape. The ground of esthetic pleasure is that the soul perceives in the beautiful object a trace of its own nature as rational, participating in 'form' or 'idea.' Unity in variety is thus pleasing because the soul is such a unity. Bodily beauty is, however, inferior to beauty of soul and this in turn receives its charm from reason. Hence symmetry is quite inadequate as explanation of beauty. Beauty consists rather in the light, the life that streams forth in connection with sympathy: and this in turn derives its value from its ultimate source, the good.

"This general conception of beauty as a manifestation of the good under sensuous conditions was influential with medieval writers. Thomas Aquinas names as its objective characteristics, 'clearness or brightness of color,' 'symmetry,' 'brilliance of form,' in addition to materials proportionally divided or to diverse forms of action, harmony and diversity."

Vallet in his Praelectiones Philosophicae ad mentem S. Thomae, vol. II, p. 47 ff, speaks as follows, quoting St. Thomas. "Ratio pulchri, in universali, consistit in resplendentia formae super partes materiae proporitionatas, vel super diversas vires, vel actiones."

Baldwin appears to have used the same source in the definition just quoted. Unfortunately, he does not indicate the source in St. Thomas from which he draws his reference. Vallet indicates his source as an Opusculum de Pulchro. A careful search of all of St. Thomas' writings, a careful study of Mandonnet (Ecrits de S. Thomas d'Aquin), which is the latest critical review of the genuine and apocryphal writings of St. Thomas fail to locate any treatise de Pulchro.

RIGHTNESS.-The last of the fundamental human interests to which Dr. Small would reduce all social life is that of rightness. In explaining it, he takes care to avoid metaphysical and theological implications, confining himself to the domain of observed facts. He discovers activities not identical with the five types already explained. He observes that "men always manifest some species of premonition of a self somehow superior to their realized self, or of a whole outside of themselves with which it is desirable to adjust the self" (466). "The real individual is at last, in one fraction of his personality, a wistfulness after that other self, or a deference to that inscrutable whole" (466). Dr. Small finds as a matter of fact that "the feeling of oughtness, or conscience, as a meaning factor in men's activities" (466) operates by means of this premonition of a superior self. "It is not at all necessary to an understanding of the human individual up to date to decide whether there is an actual realm for rightness apart from conduct in the spheres where men gain health, wealth, sociability, knowledge, and beauty satisfactions" (468). "To most men, whether they merely acquiesce in authority, or reason for themselves, rightness is an activity with a content as peculiarly its own as the realm of the health activities" (468).

In describing the field of rightness as an object of fundamental human desire, Dr. Small repeatedly warns us that he is observing the action of human desires and not stating doctrines or implications. His exposition locates rightness as a coordinate fundamental interest and not as a feature of all conscious human behavior whatever. His developed tables of details under each of the fundamental interests permit us to see that he has in mind the group of phenomena relating to religion. In fact, the title implied in that division of his general table, 727, "Achievement in Religion," identifies the two fields. The following headings make that clear:

DIVISION VI. ACHIEVEMENT IN RELIGION.

A. In defining standards of religious authority. B. In shifting center of religious interests from another life to present life.

C. In enlarged religious tolerance, with distinction between religion and theology.

D. In definite religious tendencies, promoted by the example of eminent religious men of the century; e. g., Pope Leo XIII, Cardinal Newman, Phillips Brooks, Spurgeon, Moody, General Booth, etc.

E. In federation of religious effort.

F. In religious extension.

G. In local, national, and international enlargement of the sphere of religious activities.

St. Thomas discusses rightness under the name of virtue. Virtue is a habit of right action. The rightness of action is determined by its harmony with or departure from the law of God, relationship to the law of God being direct or indirect. The proximate rule and ideal of life is right reason or conscience (1-2ae, Q. 19, a. 5; 1a, Q. 79). The remote rule and ideal is God the eternal law. A right life is one that is faithfully guided by the law of God known through conscience. St. Thomas differs fundamentally from Dr. Small in not finding a separate field for rightness as an object of human desire. The former constantly describes rightness as an aspect of all human conduct and by no means as a distinct department of it. The details of the Thomistic view may be found on pages 28, 29. The sharpness of the distinction between the two views is somewhat blunted by recalling that Dr. Small is describing the facts of life as he observes them, while St. Thomas is laying down the laws for the direction of life, the guidance of the sense of oughtness in human conduct.

The following table indicates references in St. Thomas where Small's thought is discussed in its place in the system of the former:

Professor Small

(Individual Integrity. . .

Health Work.

Sex

(Lordship over things.

Wealth Mere accumulation.

St. Thomas

(1a, Q.78, a.2; Q.11, a.1; 2-2ae, Q.25, a.5; Q.64, a.5, a.7; Q.142, a.3, ad.2) (2-2ae, Q.65, a.3; Q.168, a.4, ad.1; Opusc. 43, a.5)

(Con. Gen. 3, c 32, c 33; Supp. De Matr.)

(2-2ae, Q.66, a.1; 1 Polit. lec 5)
(la, Q.63, a.2; 1-2ae, q.2, a.1, ad.3.
Opusc. 73, c 4)

(la, Q.14, a.16; DeVerit. Q.2, a.8; Meta.
lec 2)

[blocks in formation]

(1a, Q.14, a.16; 2-2ae, Q.51, a.2, ad.3; Meta. lec. 1, lec. 3)

Beauty..

(Recognition.

Sociability

(Polit. L.8, lec. 1; 1a, Q.39, a.8; 1-2ae, Q.27, a.1, ad.3, 1a, Q.5, a.4. Quol. 6, a.1)

(1-2ae, Q.2, a.2; 2-2ae, Q.103, a.l; Q.131, a.1; Q.73, a.1, a.2; Q.103, a.1; De Malo Q.9, 8.2)

Reciprocal Valuation. . . . . (2-2ae, Q.113; Q.114)

Rightness.....

(1-2ae, QQ. 1-6; ibid. QQ.18-22)

The purpose of Small in excluding all metaphysics and higher interpretations from his concrete description of fundamental human interests, is made evident throughout his entire text. He constantly reminds us that his effort is to look upon human life, to discover and describe the central objects around which human activities are gathered. Hence, there are no differences of philosophy, of understanding of free will, of the philosophy or psychology of desire, to be noted between our two authors. They are largely alike in the substance of their thinking, the chief differences come in logical arrangement and in the point of approach. Possibly the work of Small emphasizes Tarde's thought as to the message of the old theologians to the newer sociology, more emphatically than even Ward. At any rate, a comparative study gives abundant confirmation of the thought of Tarde to which reference has already been made.

The following works were used in the preparation of this dissertation,

General

I.
THOMISTIC.

THOMAE AQUINATIS, Opera Omnia; 36 vols. Paris Edition, 1883-1889, Frette. Opera Omnia; jussu impensaque Leonis XIII edita. (a new critical edition of the works of Aquinas begun by Leo XIII eleven volumes of which have appeared. Summa Theologica (English Trans.). London, 1912.

BERGAMO, O. P., Indices in Opera Omnia. Rome, 1868.

Berthier, O. P., Tabulae Synopticae totius Summae Theologicae Sancti
Thomae. Freiburg, 1893.

BILLUART, O. P., Summa Sancti Thomae. 10 vols. Paris, 1904.
HUGON, O. P., Cursus Philosophiae Thomisticae. 6 vols. Paris, 1902.
LEPIDI, O. P., Elementa Philosophiae Christianae ad mentem S. Thomae.
4 vols. Louvain, 1877 ff.

MANDONNET, O. P., Ecrits de S. Thomae d'Aquin. Freiburg, 1910. A critical examination of the genuine and apochraphal writings of St. Thomas.

PEGUES, O. P., Commentaire Francais Litteral de la Somme Theologique de S. Thomas D'Aquin. Toulouse, 1907 ff.

SCHWALM, O. P., Philosophie Sociale, 2 vols., Paris, 1911.

Zigliara, O. P., Summa Philosophica as mentem S. Thomae. 3 vols.

Paris, 1912.

Periodicals

BIEDERLACK, J., S. J., Zur Gesellschaftslehre und Wirtschaftslehre des Thomas v. Aquino. (Zeitschrift für Kath. Theol., V. XX, p. 574).

GOSSARD, M., Lineaments d'une synthese scolastique des moeurs (Rev. de

Phil, 1906).

NOBLE, O. P., Le Plaisir et la Joie (Rev. Scien. Phil. et theolog., vol. V, pp.

689, 707).

PEGUES, O. P., La Theorie du Pouvoir dans St. Thomas (Rev. Thom., vol. 18, p. 591).

SERTILLANGES, O. P., L'Ame et la vie selon S. Thomas d'Aquin (Rev. Thom., 1893).

VAN ROEY, E., La Monnaie d'apres St. Thomas d'Aquin, (Rev. Neo Scol.,

vol. XII).

II.

MODERN SOCIOLOGY.

BALDWIN, JAMES MARK, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. 3 vols.

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