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BOTSWANA

HE Republic of Botswana lies between latitudes 18° and 27° S. and longitudes 20° and 28° W. The area of the country, which has not yet been wholly surveyed, is estimated to be 220,000 square miles, about the size of France, and has a mean altitude of 3,300 feet. Entirely landlocked, it is bounded on the south and east by the Republic of South Africa, on the north-east by Rhodesia and on the north and west by South West Africa and the Caprivi Strip which forms part of that territory.

A plateau at a height of about 4,000 feet, which forms the watershed between the Molopo and Notwani Rivers in the south and swings northward from a point about 20 miles west of Kanye all the way to the border of Rhodesia, divides the country into two dominant topographical regions, characterised by two drainage

systems. To the east of the plateau, streams flow into the Marico, Notwani and Limpopo Rivers; to the west is an inactive internal system, which at one time drained this tableland into the great Makarikari Flats. Within this flat region there are three sub-regions: the Kalahari Desert, the Okavango Swamps and the Northern State Lands area.

Eastern Botswana is broken by a series of rocky hills and is covered, particularly along its eastern margin and over its northern half, by relatively dense bush, but its rainfall is sufficient to produce good pasturage. The existence of grasses of high food value in many parts, the easily tapped underground watertable and the presence of water at shallow depths in the sand beds of the rivers and streams for most of the year, combine to make this an excellent cattle-rearing region. Most of the arable land is also situated in this area, where a mean annual rainfall of 20 inches is normally sufficient for the production of grain sorghum. In the south-east, climate and soils are suitable for the production of maize under dryland cultivation. Eighty per cent of the population lives in this region. West of the plateau which marks the boundary of Eastern Botswana the ground falls to the great expanse of the Kalahari Desert, a level tract closely covered with thorn bush and grass, extending 300 miles to the west and bounded by the Makarikari salt pans and the Botletle River in the north. Rainfall in the Kalahari Desert varies from 20 inches in the east to a scant 9 inches in the south-west. Precipitation, however, tends to be erratic and is frequently of a local nature. Surface water is absent except for limited accumulations in flat, sandy clay-floored depressions in the sandveld, known as pans, and in dams built as a result of tribal initiative or the provision of post-war development funds. Along the eastern margin of this region, where the sand mantle thins out, and in the north-west on the Ghanzi plateau which extends into the desert from South West Africa, potable underground water supplies have been developed. Elsewhere underground water tends to be saline and sweet water supplies are rare. Where potable water is found in the desert small Bakgalagadi communities gather with their cattle, but there is virtually no arable land. For the most part, this region is inhabited only by shy bands of Bushmen.

The 6,500 square miles of the Okavango swamps lie in the remote northwestern corner of Botswana known as Ngamiland. Apart from the Limpopo and Chobe Rivers, this area is the only source of permanent surface water in the country. The Okavango River, which flows into the swamps, is estimated to have an average flow of 9,000 cubic feet per second at Shakawe, but most of this flow is either trapped in the sudd-like swamps where it evaporates, or disappears in the sand beds of the Botletle and Thamalakane Rivers. The swamps are infested with tsetse fly which is harboured by the shade trees and dense undergrowth, and is spread beyond the margins of the swamp by wild game. However, the advance of the insect has been successfully arrested by insecticide spraying at selected breeding sites. The perimeter of this area is inhabited by the Batawana and allied tribes, numbering 42,000. They are chiefly pastoralists and the cattle population of the district is 120,000, but crops can be produced utilising the residual moisture of the soil in areas which are subject to seasonal flooding, or in other areas under normal rainfall conditions.

The Kalahari Desert extends north of the Botletle River and the Makarikari depression into the Northern State Lands where it gives way to belts of indigenous forest and dense bush sustained by the higher rainfall of the region. Valuable stands of mukwa (Rhodesian teak) and mukusi cover extensive areas,

whilst in other parts, where poorer soils are found, mopane forest predominates. The availability of ground water resources, particularly in the southern and eastern sections, and the existence of suitable soils and reliable rainfall in the north-eastern corner of this sub-region indicates a favourable development potential. The remaining areas are populated only by vast herds of game, in whose migratory path the Northern State Lands lie. Elephant numbers alone are estimated at over 10,000. As in the case of the Kalahari Desert, the human population is sparsely scattered around the perimeter.

The climate of the country is generally sub-tropical, but varies considerably with latitude and altitude. The Tropic of Capricorn passes through Botswana, and the northern part therefore lies within the tropics. The southern and south western areas vary between hot steppe with summer rains to desert or semi-desert climate.

During the winter the days are pleasantly warm and the nights cold, with occasional frosts in the north, and heavy frost in the semi-desert areas. The summer is hot but tempered by a prevailing north-easterly breeze which generally springs up during the night and usually lasts until mid-morning.

The annual seasonal winds from the West Coast begin in August and with every drop of humidity extracted during the Kalahari crossing, sweep across the country raising dust and sandstorms. The normally dry atmosphere helps to mitigate the high temperatures throughout the year, though this consistent dryness and constant glaring sunlight added to the effect of altitude can prove trying, particularly to those whose occupation is sedentary. The whole territory lies in the summer rainfall belt, the rains generally beginning in late October and ending in April. May to September are usually completely dry months.

The mean maximum temperature at Gaborone, the capital, which is 3,339 feet above mean sea level, is about 32·5° C (90·5° F). The mean annual rainfall at Gaborone is 21.26 inches.

A census of the population of Bechuanaland held between 13th January and 10th June 1964 showed that the country's total population was 543,105, comprising 535,275 Africans, 3,921 Europeans, 3,489 persons of mixed race, 382 Asians, and 38 others. Overall population density is 2·5 persons per square mile; it varies from 57-5 per square mile in the Gaborone District to less than 0.5 per square mile in areas such as Ghanzi. The annual rate of population increase is believed to be at least 3 per cent.

The eight principal Botswana tribes are the Bakgatla (32,118), Bakwena (73,088), Bangwekatse (71,289), Bamalete (13,861), Bamangwato (199,782), Barolong (10,662), Batawana (42,347) and Batlokwa (3,735).

The four largest towns are Serowe (34,182), Kanye (34,045), Molepolole (29,625) and Mochudi (17,712).

The main business centres are Lobatsi (7,639), Gaborone (estimated 12,000) and Francistown (9,479).

The Botswana National Airways, Government-sponsored and subsidised, started operations in November 1965. Botswana National Airways operate a twice-weekly service between Francistown, Livingstone and Lusaka. South African Airways also operate a twice-weekly service between Johannesburg and Gaborone.

There are eighteen government owned airfields and twelve emergency landing grounds in Botswana. The airfield at Gaborone is 5,820 feet in length and capable of accepting DC4 aircraft.

The main railway line from Cape Town to Rhodesia passes through Botswana running practically due north, entering at Ramathalbama, 866 miles from Cape Town, and leaving at Ramaquabane, 394 miles further north. The single track runs roughly parallel to the eastern boundary of Botswana at an average distance from it of about 50 miles. The gauge of the track is 3 ft 6 in. The line is owned and operated by Rhodesia Railways.

The total road mileage in Botswana is 5,016, of which 2,664 miles are trunk and main roads. Apart from tarmac-surfaced roads at Gaborone, Lobatsi and Francistown, all roads are gravel.

Radio Botswana is the only broadcasting service in the country. It is operated by the Ministry of Home Affairs and broadcasts in the 31, 49, 60 and 90 metre bands, short wave, and also in the medium wave band and on V.H.F.

The economy of Botswana is based on its cattle industry. Following about five years of below average rainfall there was a total failure in 1965 which caused the worst crop failure and drought which the territory had experienced for 25 years. It is estimated that approximately 200,000 head of cattle died of starvation. Farmers were handicapped by the fact that their oxen were in very weak condition as a result of the previous seasons' droughts and in many cases were unable to take advantage of the early rains for ploughing. Large-scale importations of maize and sorghum were necessary, and during 1965 and 1966 emergency measures had to be taken to alleviate what threatened to become a serious famine. The rains and the harvest were good in 1966/67 but in 1967/68 and again in 1968/69 the rains came too late and poor crops necessitated the introduction of emergency feeding measures in certain parts of the country.

There are prospects of some diversification of the economy and improvement of Botswana's financial position by the development of mineral deposits which have been discovered in the north eastern area of the country. After some years of exploration work Bamangwato Concessions Ltd., a subsidiary of Botswana R.S.T. Ltd., announced in February 1967 that they had at that time outlined a total of some 33 million tons of potential copper ore at Matsitama and copper/nickel ore at Selibe/Phikwe. Further feasibility studies are continuing and it is hoped that they will reveal that mining can be started as a commercial operation. In addition the De Beers Prospecting Company (Pty.) Ltd., is pursuing an intensive evaluation of kimberlitic pipes at Orapa, near Letlhakane, and it is hoped that this too will result in the commencement of diamond mining. The feasibility of using coal deposits at Morupule near Palapye for the supply of power to serve the prospective mining areas has also been investigated. The commercial development of these mineral deposits will of course require heavy expenditure for the creation of the necessary infrastructure facilities, which are currently under investigation.

The total value of exports in 1967 was R. 9,218,503, the bulk of which consisted of animal produce (R. 8,736,583).

Following independence the British Government undertook to provide Botswana with budgetary and development aid up to a total of £13 million over the three-year period 1967/68 to 1969/70. This was additional to the assistance provided under the Overseas Service Aid Scheme and technical assistance and to the loans to cover Botswana's share of the payments to officers of H.M.O.C.S. under the general compensation scheme. At the time of the offer the equivalent in local currency was R.26 million but the value was reduced by devaluation. The British Government has, however, agreed to maintain the

Rand value of its aid during 1967/68, 1968/69 and 1969/70. After taking account of certain expenditure in the United Kingdom which was not affected by devaluation the revised sterling figures for the grants during 1967/68 were, up to £3.221 million for budgetary aid and up to £1.551 million for capital development expenditure. For 1968/69 the comparable figures are £3.56 million and £1.23 million respectively and for 1969/70 £3.73 million and £1·17 million. Aid under the Overseas Service Aid Scheme during 1968/69 was just under £239,000 and the estimated figure for 1969/70 was just over £235,000.

The first schools were established by the London Missionary Society during the first half of the last century. As the number of schools increased so did administrative problems and in 1910 the Society and the Chief of the Bangwaketse tribe formed a committee to administer schools in that tribal area. This committee included representatives of the tribe, the Mission and the District Administration. Other tribes followed suit and the system of committee management proved so useful and popular that it was extended to cover practically all educational work being done in tribal areas. Local District Councils were formed in 1966 and today most primary schools are controlled by the local authorities. All professional matters are controlled by the Director of Education.

While the ultimate aim is compulsory education for all, practical difficulties, mainly financial, will prevent accomplishment of this for some time to come. For the same reasons education is not free and parents are expected to contribute to the cost of their children's education according to their means. School fees are nevertheless very modest and no child is debarred from education at any stage on account of parental poverty.

Very large increases in enrolment in the nineteen-sixties combined with shortages of teachers, classrooms and equipment, have acted as a brake on progress in primary schools in all districts. Secondary education is only partially developed, because until recently the country relied upon assistance from neighbouring countries, notably South Africa, for all forms of post-primary education. Meagreness of financial resources is making the development of secondary education a long and difficult process still far from complete. However, there are now ten secondary schools (some of which are run by religious or voluntary bodies) and three teacher training colleges. Botswana shares in the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland, constituted by Royal Charter at Roma, Lesotho in January 1964. About 22 per cent of the total population are literate in Setswana, and 15 per cent are literate in English.

The national day of the Republic of Botswana is the 30th September, commemorating the achievement of Independence in 1966.

HISTORY

The picture presented by most parts of Southern Africa in the first quarter of the 19th century was one of tribal wars, pillage and bloodshed, caused mainly by the expansion of the Zulus under Chaka. This warrior chief had succeeded in welding his people into a disciplined and warlike nation who fell upon everyone unfortunate enough to be within their reach. Their neighbouring tribes therefore fled to all points of the compass, despoiling on their way the peoples in their path and thereby setting up a general movement of destructive migration.

Among these migratory bands were the followers of an amazon called MmaNtatisi and her son Sekonyela, who came from tribes living in the neighbourhood

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