2. Supervision of all the different divisions of the State department of education responsible to the State board for the proper administration of the duties of each such division.

3. In cooperation with the heads of the State's institutions for training teachers, and in conformity with law, he should prescribe courses of study for these training schools, standards for certification. of teachers, and methods for the validation of teachers' credentials from other States.

4. As the professional representative of the State board of education, he cooperates with the presidents and faculties of the higher educational institutions of the State.s

ORGANIZATION FOR LOCAL MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS'

As has been stated, each State as a whole is the legal unit in education, but for administrative purposes each State delegates certain responsibilities to smaller local units. The history of educational development in the country proves this to be a wise policy. There is not uniform practice in or agreement concerning the amount of control and management the State should attempt through its State department of education and the amount it should delegate to the local units. In the earliest days of the public school the States assumed that they were fulfilling their full duty when they passed legislation authorizing or requiring local units to establish schools to provide at least a minimum amount of education for their children. Later, step by step, they have found it advisable to take from these local units one function after another because they were not uniformly well carried out. This process is continuing. It is called the "centralization" of authority in the State. It has reached varying degrees of progress in various States; however, the balance of power between the State and local units still

8 The relationship between the State chief school officer and the State board of education, recommended above and found by experience satisfactory, is that now existing between the president of the State university and the board of trustees in the well-managed institutions or between the city school superintendent and the city board in the most progressive and advanced cities. The president, in one case, and the city superintendent, in the other, are the most responsible heads of the university and the city school system, respectively, receiving their authority from the boards they represent and replaceable by the boards if not measuring up to the requirements of the positions.

In both cases the boards determine general policies, authorize developments and activities, leaving the actual execution to their executive officers, the president or the superintendent, and giving to their executive officers much freedom for initiative. In both cases boards, when filling a vacancy in the presidency or in the superintendency, feel free to select the best person available from anywhere in the country or even outside the country. Indeed, the relationship is similar to that found in corporations. The general manager is selected by the board of directors. He becomes, when selected, the responsible head of the organization, removable for cause, but while holding office has authority to carry on the affairs of the corporation in accordance with the general instructions of the board of directors to the best of his ability.

An identical relationship should exist between the county superintendent of schools and the county board of education in States with the county unit organization,

See U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bulletins, 1914, No. 44, and 1922, No. 10,

remains with the local units. While the local unit must maintain schools, conforming to specifications of the State department of education, the real worth of the school it conducts is determined by local conditions, interests, and activities.

Four more or less distinct territorial units of organization for administering rural schools are found at the present time in the United States: The district, the New England town, the township, and the county. In addition, in practically all States, incorporated cities are independent school units. There are many instances of mixed systems in which the responsibility for the school rests partly on the district and partly on the township, or on the district and the county. These mixed systems come from the transition from the old district system to the more modern township or county system.

The small local district was the original pioneer organization, particularly in New England, and it extended westward and to the southwest. It was suited to pioneer times when a larger unit of organization was impossible. The town system originated in Massachusetts, replacing the Massachusetts district system, and soon spread throughout New England. The township school unit has been adopted by a few States, in which it is also an important unit in civil government. County organization originated in the South, largely because the county was the civil unit. It has spread westward and northward, replacing the district system in several States. The district unit. The term "district unit" is generally used to mean a small geographical area set apart for school purposes only and served by a single school. Occasionally, however, it contains two or more schools and in sparsely settled portions of the country is often an area larger than a township. In the old district unit the school, or schools, if there happened to be more than one, was under the full charge of a local board of trustees. This board had general charge of all school affairs, including the care of the school property, the choice of teachers, the fixing of salaries, and the establishment of the policy which governed the work of the school. The board was amenable to the annual school meeting, which elected its members, voted the taxation, and determined the length of the school year.

The district unit has been defended as being "democratic." However, it is generally conceded by authorities on school administration to be ineffective and is gradually disappearing in many sections of the United States. Where it is still left local boards must conduct the school in accordance with laws and regulations of the State department of education and subject to administration and supervision, in many particulars, on the part of the county superintendent of schools. In pioneer days it was probably the only feasible plan, but with the passing of pioneer conditions and the development of mod

ern industrial and agricultural life, a larger unit for school taxation is necessary and a larger and more centrally controlled system of organization seems desirable.

Town and township units.-The school unit known as the "town" system in New England includes under one taxation unit and one board of control all schools in a civil township. The system originated in Massachusetts during the middle of the last century and has become general throughout New England. The unit seems satisfactory in New England, where the town is also the unit in civil government. The town unit contains all schools in the township, whether located in the thickly settled section or in the rural sections.

New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, West Virginia, Ohio, and parts of Michigan, Iowa, and North Dakota are organized on the township-unit basis. In several of these States there is a strong movement to abandon the system in favor of a larger and more effective unit.

The county unit. The county unit is the term applied to systems in which the schools in the county (city schools usually excepted) are organized as a single system under one board of education and supported largely by county funds. There are many types of county systems in operation. Real classification is not attempted, as organizations differ in many particulars among States called "county unit. States." Ten States have centralized to the extent that the county board of education is the paramount board in the management of the schools. These 10 are Alabama, Florida, Kenucky, Louisiana, Maryland, New Mexico, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Utah. In three of these-Florida, Louisiana, and Maryland-city schools as well as country schools are under the management of county boards. In the other States the incorporated cities are independent in most respects. Five other States have partly the county and partly the district system, or such a division of authority between district and county that they may be considered as in a state of transition from district to county system. These States are South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, Oregon, and Montana. In a number of other States-Arizona, Washington, and California, for example-the county is important in school support but not in administrative control.

Larger units of organization.-There is unusual interest in many States organized on the district unit plan in establishing larger units of organization in order to secure better management and a larger tax valuation on which to draw for school support. In a number of these States the county, being the civil unit, is favored also as a unit apt to be efficient for the administration of schools. In some States the county is at present an important unit for school purposes, par

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ticularly for financing schools. In other States the county is not now an important unit for school purposes. New York and New England are outstanding examples. In a number of States now organized on the district plan there is considerable sentiment against centralization of schools to the extent of that involved in a county unit. In response to the need for a larger unit and in consideration of the sentiment against the county unit a community unit plan has been advocated by students of education in several States. It is believed by these advocates that it may offer a compromise between the extremes of over and under centralization of responsibility for the support and control of schools. The plan is believed to have great merit. So far, however, it has not been tried out in any of the States for which advocated. A survey of rural schools for the State of New York describes the plan and its merits in detail.10

In a large number of States considering progressive legislation looking toward larger and better administrative units, the county unit plan is being carefully studied. Because of the interest shown in many States in this plan at the present time, and because the term commonly used, "county unit," is an indefinite one applied to administrative organizations which differ widely, a description of an effective county organization is here presented.

AN EFFECTIVE COUNTY ORGANIZATION

Practice in good systems already established indicates that a county organization to be most effective should make provision for a well-centralized business and professional administration, without depriving the people in each section of local initiative in school matters. The county board and the county superintendent should administer the general school affairs and expend the county school funds to equalize educational advantages among all the children of the county. Each school community should have a representative appointed by the county board or, if desired, elected at an annual school meeting, to represent the school before the county board. Support should come principally from county funds. The school funds of the county should be expended by the county board of education for the general maintenance of all the schools. The local school community should usually be given the right to levy taxes and issue bonds for extraordinary school purposes, such as acquiring additional land sites or erecting new buildings. This gives a measure of local autonomy. This should be permitted only after a county-wide tax sufficient for all ordinary school purposes for the entire county has been levied and collected.

10 Rural School Survey of New York State. Ithaca, N. Y., 1923.

A good county system has an organization for the management and support of its schools similar to that of the best city systems. The county board of education is elected from the county at large in the same manner as the best city boards are elected. It should have practically the same powers and duties. It determines the general educational policies of the county. It familiarizes itself with the educational needs of the entire county and locates schools where needed. It employs the county superintendent of schools and authorizes the employment of assistants. The county superintendent is its executive officer in exactly the same way that the city superintendent is the executive officer of the city board of education. In selecting a superintendent the board should have authority to employ the best person obtainable regardless of whether he is or is not a citizen of the county or even of the State. The board should be free, within reasonable limitations, to pay whatever salary may be necessary to obtain the most efficient person. The county superintendency requires as much ability and professional experience as that of a city of the same population. It presents difficulties in size of territory, placement of teachers, organization of supervisory staff, school financing, location of buildings, and the like which are even greater than city superintendents must meet. The salary should be commensurate with the responsibility.

The size of the board determines somewhat its effectiveness. The tendency is toward a board of five members, though very good results are evidenced in States with boards of three members and others. with boards of seven or nine. The members are elected from the county at large or from electoral districts, sometimes but not always on a nonpartisan ticket. The individuals on the board should be men and women of high standing and ability, interested in education, but not necessarily selected from those who have had actual school experience. They should serve without pay, except for the necessary expenses when attending board meetings. Their duties are strictly legislative, leaving all executive functions to the county superintendent. Among progressive States with modern county school systems the following are recognized as duties of the county board of education:

1. To enforce the laws relative to education and the rules and regulations of the State board of education within their respective counties.

2. To select the county superintendent and all necessary supervisors and office assistants; also to select one director for each school community within their jurisdiction, who shall be the custodian of local school property and represent local needs before the county boards.

3. To have direct charge of all county schools outside of incorporated city districts, including the closing of unnecessary schools,