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county unit of administration and support is proposed; a study of the experiences of States organized on that basis will be helpful. When it is evident that new or revised school laws are needed in any State it is wise to follow the successful experience of other States which have tried the proposed plans, if such may be found. If reasons are evident that would make this practice undesirable, or a plan is proposed which seems better than any yet tried, a review of the experiences of other States solving the same problems in other ways is still desirable.

In other words, school legislation should be passed in the light of what has been proved effective in other States and with the knowledge before one of what has been tried and discarded and of the reasons influencing success or failure.

This bulletin is a brief résumé of what has been found desirable and acceptable. It aims to show the trend in educational systems and legislation adopted after experience and study. It gives references to more complete information on the subjects discussed.

THE STATE AND THE SCHOOLS

Practice in the United States, as well as constitutional or statutory provisions, charges the several State legislatures with the responsibility of providing a system of schools for all the children of the State adequate to their needs and efficient in fulfilling the educational ideals of the people of the State. Education with us is admittedly a State responsibility. It follows, therefore, that it is the duty of the State legislature (1) to formulate a constructive policy for the education of all the children of the State; (2) to provide the administrative machinery for a school system adequate to carry out this policy; and (3) to make such changes from time to time as changing conditions and educational needs require.

It is well known that after-war conditions have brought about fundamental changes in ideals for a modern education system. Progressive States, therefore, are providing for such changes in administrative organization; in sources, amount, and distribution of funds; and in school and curriculum reorganization as the needs of modern life require. The program of adjustment of the school system to the growing needs and expectations of the people involves many problems which State legislatures must help solve. Among the most pressing of those which call for legislative action at this time are: (1) To secure more nearly equitable adjustment within the State of tax burdens and educational opportunities for all children. (2) To provide systems of school support which will enable the schools of the State more adequately to meet the expansion necessary in the provision of school facilities commensurate with

the new ideals for school buildings, school organization, enriched curricula, and increased costs of instruction and general school administration. (3) To provide such administrative systems as will insure professional administration and efficient and economical management of the schools. The State, as such, is responsible for providing an administrative system which makes possible an elementary and secondary education for all children in the State. (4) To set up certain minimum standards which all schools and school systems must meet, and to provide for such sources of support as will enable all communities to maintain schools satisfying established standards.

A STATE PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION

The legislative program for any State will differ from that in others because it must provide for particular and specific State needs and must be consistent with the existing administrative system and traditions and ideals of the people. There are, however, certain considerations and problems common to all States which will doubtless be the subject of consideration in formulating educational programs. In many States the first step should be to take an inventory or survey of the educational assets and liabilities of the State, and on the basis of this study to formulate a program of educational legislation extending over a period of years. Such a program would include, among other things, some provision for the following:

1. A businesslike State system of school organization, administration, supervision, and support; a professionally staffed and adequate State department of education.

2. Establishment of an effective unit for the greatest efficiency in local school administration, or such changes in existing unit as will add to its practical efficiency.

3. Readjustment of elementary and secondary education to include (a) education for health, (b) education for citizenship, (c) education for life occupation, and (d) education for leisure.

4. A liberal system of school support, including sources which supplement income from property taxation, if possible; a scientifically distributed equalization fund; or an equitable method of distributing established funds to equalize educational opportunities and at the same time provide an equitable distribution of tax burdens.

5. Provision which insures sanitary and appropriate school grounds and buildings, preferably under State supervision and inspection. 6. Preparation of an adequate staff of teachers.

7. Provision for a modern system of certificating teachers based on a gradual increase in professional requirements.

8. Adequate provision for living salaries for these teachers, longer tenures, and retirement pension.

21279°-27—2

9. A liberal plan under which to provide textbooks and equipment in the schools.

TABLE 1.—Illiteracy: Number and per cent of illiterates in population 10 years of age and over, by United States Census of 1920-Number unable to speak English

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6.01, 109, 875 2.5 132, 697 0.81,763, 740 13. 11, 842, 161 22. 91, 488, 948

Continental
United States. 4, 931, 905
278, 082 16. 1
39, 131 15.3
121, 837 9.4
95, 592 3.3

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Chapter II

GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION

STATE EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION

The State's program of education must have first a legal basis resting upon its constitution and the duly approved acts of its legislature. In certain instances this legislation charges the performance of certain educational duties directly to local civil governments or to special school units; usually, however, it is carried out through certain State officers. In most States there is a State board of education, in all a State department of education. The board usually has general supervision of the State's educational program as determined in its constitution and laws. It acts only as a body. Its acts are legislative, the execution being the function of the State chief school officer and the State department of education over which this officer presides. In other words, the State department of education is the functioning body for the State board.

The new and enlarged conception of education is adding new importance to the chief educational officer in the several Statesi. e., the State superintendent of public instruction or commissioner of education and to the State department of education of which he is a part and the head. The office, as originally created in the older States, was chiefly clerical and statistical, much like the old county superintendency. Almost any person chosen from the general electorate could then fill the position to the satisfaction of the public. But the demands of to-day require a new type of educational leadership, able to administer the manifold problems of modern school organization and administration, general education, school sanitation, industrial and vocational education, interrelation of the elementary and higher schools, and educational legislation.

STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION1

Modern educational development is toward provision for a State board of education as the administrative head of the State's educational system. Forty-two States have such boards with functions relating to the common schools. Two States have no such boards. In several States boards have been organized since the passage of

1 See also U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bulletins, 1920, No. 46, and 1924, No. 5.

the Smith-Hughes vocational education act to administer the funds provided under this act. Their duties, like those of many ex officio

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FIG. 1. Per cent of total population rural and on farms

boards, are nominal. In others the State boards of education administer only the higher educational institutions, as the university, agricultural college, and normal schools.

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