gow Farragut (q.v.) and in order he became the first rear-admiral, first vice-admiral and first admiral. In 1866, when the rank of admiral was established and Farragut had assumed the rank, Rear-Admiral David D. Porter (q.v.) was promoted to vice-admiral, and in 1870, on Farragut's death, he became admiral. Rear-Admiral Stephen C. Rowan then became vice-admiral, but he died in 1890 and Porter in 1891, whereupon both grades were abolished. In 1899 the grade of admiral of the navy was established by Congress and conferred upon George Dewey (q.v.) as a reward for services at Manila Bay. This rank is a grade above admiral and resembles the rank of admiral of the fleet in the British navy. In 1882 Congress reduced the number of rear-admirals to six and the number of commodores to 10, but in 1899 increased the number of rear-admirals to 18, comprising two classes of nine each, and abolished the grade of commodore on the active list. The rank of rear-admiral is also borne by the chiefs of the Navy Department bureaus during their term of office. Originally the admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral of the navy corresponded to the general, lieutenant-general and majorgeneral of the army, and various acts after 1862 confirmed these provisions, but the act of 1899, which abolished the rank of commodore, provided that the senior nine rearadmirals should rank with major-generals and the junior nine rear-admirals with brigadiergenerals. The admiral of the navy and admiral receive $13,500 annually; senior nine rear-admirals, $8,000; and junior nine rearadmirals, $6,000; while an additional 10 per cent above these amounts is allowed for sea duty or shore duty beyond the continental limits of the United States. A retired officer receives 75 per cent of his active pay at time of retirement. The flag of the American admiral, which flies at the main, is rectangular and blue, with four white stars; that of the vice-admiral, flown at the fore, is similar but has only three stars; that of a rear-admiral, flown at the mizzen, is similar in shape but has only two stars and usually is blue, but if two or more rear-admirals be together, the senior flies a blue flag and the others red. See UNITED STATES, NAVY OF THE, and similar articles under the titles of the various nations. ADMIRAL. (1) In entomology, a nymphalid butterfly- any one of several species, as the red admiral (Pyrameis atalanta), and the white admirals of the genus Basilarchia. (2) In conchology, one of the cones (Conus ammiralis). See CONE-SHELL.

ADMIRALTY, The. In Great Britain, the governmental department which manages all matters pertaining to the British navy and the royal marine. The admirality derives its character from the fact that it represents the lord high admiral, whose administrative functions have been transferred to and vested in a board of commissioners. Among the duties of these commissioners are the maintenance and expansion of the fleet according to governmental policy, keeping its roster filled with trained officers and men, and preserving it in the highest possible degree of preparedness and efficiency as regards personnel and material. The board consists of five lords commissioners,

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who decide collectively all important matters and who, in theory, are jointly responsible; they are the first lord, the first and second naval lords, the additional naval, lord and controller, the junior naval lord and the civil lord who execute the office of lord high admiral, and with them are the parliamentary and financial secretary and the permanent secretary. The first lord, who is always a cabinet minister and who is responsible to the Crown and to Parliament for all admiralty business, besides having general direction and supervision, manages the political affairs of the navy, as its representative in Parliament, controls the naval estimates and finances and has charge of appointments, promotions and removals. The first naval lord is responsible for the commissioning of ships, the personnel of the fleet, its fighting efficiency and employment, its discipline and the appointment of inferior officers; he directs the operations of the admiral superintendent of naval reserves in regard to ships, the hydrographer, the director of naval ordinance and the naval intelligence department; and makes the necessary preparations to protect trade and the fishcries. The second naval lord has charge of the personnel of the fleet, the manning of the navy, and mobilization, supervises the training establishments and colleges, attends to naval education, training and the affairs of the royal marine force, appoints navigating officers and inferior officers and supervises the management of the reserve. The additional naval lord and controller has charge of everything pertaining to the material of the fleet, design, construction, machinery, equipment, dockyards and building establishments, gunnery and armament, maintenance repairs and refits and naval stores. The junior naval lord has control over the transport, medical and victualling services, the regulation of hospitals, the coaling arrangements of the fleet, of uniforms, prize money, naval savings banks, pensions and the appointment of chaplains, naval instructors, medical officers and officers of the accountant branch. Among the duties of the civil lord are the supervision of admiralty buildings and works, construction and labor, contracts and purchases of building stores and land, and the direction of the civil staff of the naval establishments; Greenwich Hospital is under his authority and the charitable funds, compassionate allowances, etc., are in his charge. The parliamentary and financial secretary has charge of the finances of the department, the navy estimates and general expenditures. The permanent secretary supervises and directs the general office work of the admiralty, of the military, naval and legal branches, the civil branch and the record office. When the prime minister resigns, all the lords of the admiralty do likewise and those who have seats in Parliament are succeeded by others.

ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION. The system of law and procedure under which maritime transactions are regulated. It derives its name from the fact that it was originally administered in England by the lord high admiral. The modern laws have been adopted from the civil law and from such sea codes as those of Rhodes and Oléron (qq.v.). Article III, § 2 of the Constitution provides that the judicial power of the United

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States "shall extend to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction" and as is the custom in Europe the United States Supreme Court has declared that by virtue of these words our admiralty courts shall entertain jurisdiction not only over the high seas but also over all public navigable waters, including interior lakes, rivers and canals, and that this jurisdiction is not confined to tide waters. The admiralty jurisdiction of the Federal courts is fixed by statute and in general covers cases that arise under contracts calling for the performance of certain duties or obligations upon navigable waters, such as contracts involving the transportation of passengers or merchandise between different States or foreign ports, cases of salvage, bonds of bottomry or hypothecation of ship and cargo, contracts (express or implied) for seamen's wages, seizures under the laws of impost, navigation or trade, cases of prize or ransom, charter-parties, contracts with materialmen, jettisons, maritime contributions and averages, policies of marine insurance, contracts for the furnishing of materials for or the making of repairs on foreign vessels, and generally to all assaults and batteries, damages and trespasses taking place on the high seas. Under war conditions the admiralty jurisdiction is extended so as to include the power to determine questions of prize. Crimes committed upon the high seas or beyond the jurisdiction of any country come under the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts, but as no crimes save those specified by statute are punishable in the Federal courts, the jurisdiction in this respect does not differ from that regarding other statutory offenses. A suit is commenced in admiralty by filing a libel, upon which a warrant is issued for the arrest of the person, or attachment of his property if he cannot be found, or a simple monition to appear; such proceedings are called actions in personam, that is, actions between individuals for tort or breach of contract. There may be a proceeding in rem, under which a warrant is issued for the arrest of the thing in question; in other words the proceedings are to determine the rights to or claims against a vessel or other particular subject-matter. In cases of actions in personam, the admiralty courts do not possess exclusive jurisdiction, since under the statutes the parties to such actions still retain their rights of action at common law; but in cases in rem, admiralty courts exercise exclusive jurisdiction and no other remedy can be sought in any other court. In the latter class of cases the vessel or other subject-matter involved must be brought by seizure or otherwise within the jurisdiction of the court. Since, in the United States, there are no courts whose duties and jurisdiction are confined to admiralty cases the district courts, by statute, have original jurisdiction in general admiralty and maritime cases and appeal may be made to the circuit court of appeals, but in a few specified cases and in prize cases the appeal is to the Supreme Court. The court usually tries admiralty cases without a jury, but in a few special cases trial by jury is provided by statutory provision. State courts have no admiralty jurisdiction. Among the more prominent cases in the Supreme Court are: Waring vs. Clark (1846), 5 How. 441; The Propeller Genesee Chief vs. Fitzhugh (1851), 12 How. 443; The Moses Taylor (1866), 4

Wall. 411; Insurance Co. vs. Dunham (1870), 11 Wall. 1; Leon vs. Galceran (1870), 11 Wall. 185; Ex parte Boyer (1884), 109 Ú. S. 629; Manchester vs. Massachusetts (1891), 139 U. S. 240. See COMMERCIAL LAW; LAW, MARITIME; INSURANCE, MARINE. Consult Benedict, E. C., The American Admiralty, Its Jurisdiction and Practice (4th ed., Albany, N. Y., 1910). The early continental and English authorities are collected in Judge Story's opinion in the case of De Lovio vs. Boit (1815), 2 Gallison 398, 7 Fed. Cases, No. 3,776. Laws of Oléron and other early maritime codes and ordinances may be found in Peter's 'Admiralty Decisions,' 1792-1807, Vol. I, App., and in the appendix to Federal Cases, Vol. XXX.

The

ADMIRALTY INLET, a narrow body of water connecting Puget Sound with the Strait of Juan de Fuca.

ADMIRALTY ISLAND, a mountainous island, 90 miles long, off the west coast of Alaska, to the northeast of Sitka; belongs to the United States.

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of 40 islands, to the northeast of New Guinea; Basco, the largest of them, being 60 miles in length, mountainous, but fruitful. The total area of the islands is 878 square miles. They were discovered by Schouten in 1616. Čarteret named them in 1767. Some are volcanic; others are coral islands. They abound in cocoanuttrees and are inhabited by a race of tawny, frizzle-headed savages of the Papuan stock, about 800 in number. Together with New Britain and some adjoining groups they were annexed by Germany in 1885, and now form part of the Bismarck Archipelago.

ADMIRALTY LAW. See ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION; Law, MaritIME.

ADMISSION. In practice, the act by which attorneys and counsellors become recognized as officers of the court and are allowed to practise.

În corporations or companies, the act of a corporation or company by which an individual acquires the right of a member of such corporation or company. In trading and jointstock companies no vote of admission is requisite, for any person who owns stock therein, either by original subscription or conveyance, is in general entitled to, and cannot be refused, the rights and privileges of a member. Nothing more can be required of a person demanding a transfer on the books than that he prove to the corporation his right to the stock.

In evidence, a concession or voluntary acknowledgment made by a party of the existence of certain things or conditions, or of the truth of certain statements. The admissions or declarations of a party in respect to the subject-matter of an action at law or suit in equity may always be given in evidence against him. As distinguished from confessions, the term is applied to civil transactions, and to matters of fact in criminal cases where there is no criminal intent. Express or direct admissions are those which are made in direct terms. Incidental admissions are those made in some other connection or involved in the admission of some other fact, Implied admissions are those

which result from some act or failure to act of the party. To be considered as evidence, admissions may be made by a party to the record or one identified in interest with him, but not where the party of record is only a nominal party and has no active interest in the action.

ADOBE, ä-dō'ba (Sp., from adobar, to daub or plaster), colloquially "dobie": sundried bricks, from any native clays; especially those made in the arid western and southwestern regions of the United States, as in the Great Basin, Arizona, New Mexico, etc., by molding the bricks and then turning the sides alternately to the sun day by day for a week or two, stacking up for use when sufficiently baked. These, however, are the resource only of people in an inferior state of civilization, as the rain soon dissolves them into streams of mud; hence also they are impossible at all save where rain is very infrequent. The sizes are usually two, 18x 9x4 and 16 x 12 x 4, the larger ones in the best building used as headers (the greatest length crosswise to the wall) and the others as stretchers (lengthwise). The earliest building material in Assyria and Egypt was adobe, usually strengthened with straw, and it is still much used in Japan and China. Adobe soils are clay soils very plastic when wet, but too hard for cultivation when dry; they are lightened by plowing in sand or sandy loam and are often very fertile.

ADOLESCENCE (Latin, adolescere, to grow up) is the period of life between the advent of puberty and maturity. Puberty, or the period when an individual first becomes capable of begetting or of bearing children, occurs approximately in the 12th or 13th year for girls and the 14th year for boys, though in individual cases its advent may be as early as the 10th or as late as the 21st year. These alterations of structure and function in the body which fit it for the processes of reproduction are the primary aspect of the period of adolescence on its physical side and the remaining phenomena, both physical and mental, which make the period so striking and so significant for psychology and education, can be shown to be related more or less directly to this fundamental process of preparing the body for its rôle in the perpetuation of the race.

Physical Changes. Thus, on the physical side, measurements of the body and its capacities show during adolescence, and particularly in the four or five years from puberty onward, distinct acceleration in the rate of growth, and this acceleration begins earlier and ends earlier in boys than in girls, just as the onset of puberty itself is earlier in girls. The consequence of this sex difference in the appearance of adolescence is that for a time, approximately from the age of 12 to the age of 141⁄2, girls are actually taller and heavier than boys of the same age, while in other respects, as for example in strength and in breathing capacity, the girls come near to, though they do not exceed, the capacity of boys during these years. These bodily changes at adolescence are prominent in every aspect of physical development; the bones not only lengthen and thicken but alter their shapes and their structure. The facial expression changes during this period and the shift in the shape of chest and pelvis, particu

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larly in girls, is marked. There is quite exceptional growth of muscles. There are decided changes in the volume and capacity of the heart. The alteration in the dimensions of the larynx and its vocal cords is responsible for the characteristic mutation of the voice in boys. The brain, while not increasing appreciably in weight, certainly undergoes rather marked alterations in its connective systems, if we may judge from the corresponding alterations in instinctive tendencies, impulses, feelings and emotions and the obviously greater maturity of thought.

While all these physical changes are to be noted in adolescent boys and girls, it remains true that there is considerable unevenness in their appearance when we consider the individual rather than the group. It is agreed that one of the characteristics of the period is this increase in variability; there is more difference between individual and individual during adolescence than during the first 12 years of life, and this is true of all the aspects of development, both physical and mental.

Mental Characteristics. On the mental side adolescence is characterized by analogous and equally striking alterations. The central phenomenon is the correlate of the physical changes of puberty, namely, the emergence and rapid development of sex feelings and impulses, in the widest sense of these terms. Thus, concomitant with the ripening of the sex instinct, appear such psychological manifestations as "showing off, jealously, heightened consciousness of social relations, deeper and richer appreciation of beauty in all its forms, a wider range of ambitions and ideals, an enlarged mental horizon, new and more vital appreciation of moral and religious relations, a lessening of home ties with a corresponding augmentation of interest in the world's life outside the familiar circles of the earlier years. Mere maturity would account for a portion of these manifestations, yet psychologists detect the undercurrent of sex in all of them, so that they are to be regarded as primarily due to the irradiation or "sublimation" of the sex impulse.

The more direct expressions of the developing sex impulses are found in bashfulness, coyness, "showing off," sudden and strong attractions or repulsions for individuals of the opposite sex, new interest in dress and adornment and numerous vague, though emotional, responses to sex stimuli of all sorts.

For the best physical and mental development it is of the highest importance that these attitudes toward sex should be "normal" and wholesome. No one conversant with the facts doubts that boys and girls who are entering the period of adolescence ought to be sufficiently warned and protected as to keep them from vicious sex practices; it is perhaps less generally understood that there is danger of unwholesome mental attitudes toward sex and that there is corresponding need of guidance here. The forces liberated by the stimuli of sex can be diverted or "sublimated" in such a way as to provide a tremendous incentive toward sound mental development. The cardinal issue of moral training in adolescence is to divert the energies of youth into the best channels of effort, to replace crude and selfish by refined and unselfish interests; in short, to compass the shift from the natural egoism of childhood to the desired altruism of maturity.

Sex Hygiene.- In this connection much debate has arisen concerning the instruction of adolescents in sex hygiene. The problem is intricate and difficult. Perhaps the best opinion of experts would be that information concerning the elementary facts of sex ought by all means be given to children before the advent of puberty and preferably by their parents; instruction in childhood is easy because self-consciousness has not developed so far; children are naturally curious about these matters; their parents are the natural sources from which to seek information; if uninformed by their parents they will almost inevitably pick up from their associates misinformation of an appalling character. In addition, adolescent boys and girls ought to know the main facts concerning the physical changes going on in them at puberty, and they ought probably a little later to be given the main facts concerning venereal diseases, though without overstressing the pathological aspects in a lurid way. Instruction in adolescence, in any event, should not be restricted to the physiology and pathology of sex, but should include talks on the family, on divorce, on the larger social relations of the individual, all so couched as to appeal to the best emotions and stimulate the adolescent to a broad and wholesome attitude toward the participation which is about to be his in the life of his fellowmen.

Special Impulses.- Statistics show that adolescence tends to arouse the so-called migratory instinct. Running away from home, yearning for adventure, the Wanderlust appears to be stronger about the years 17 to 19 than at any other period. In boys, especially, this instinct is often seen clearly at work; no other explanation is adequate for the apparently motiveless way in which young boys suddenly strike out for themselves and leave perfectly comfortable homes. Closely akin to this is the "desire for activity" that figures so prominently in causes of withdrawal from school. Many writers feel that a serious attempt should be made in secondary education to supply in connection with the work of the school opportunities for satisfying this impulse to explore, to visit new places, to try new things, to be doing "something different.»

Social Tendencies. In adolescence all the tendencies that we term "social" are decidedly intensified. Wanting to be where others are, wanting to be liked by others, wanting to help others, entering seriously into the joys and sorrows of others; - these are all manifested in adolescence much more clearly and consistently than in childhood. It is obvious that these tendencies, all of which are instinctive attitudes more or less closely correlated with the sex impulse, have in themselves possibilities both of good or of evil. Parents and teachers must seek to direct these social tendencies so that good associates are preferred, so that the youth seeks the approbation of the best, so that the relations formed between the youth and his fellows make for his moral development and not his moral undoing. Naturally, at this age the appeal to social approbation is a powerful incentive; the adolescent boy and the adolescent girl will do what will secure the good opinion of their social group when they will be moved by no other motive.

Similarly, the tendency during adolescence to form numerous social organizations - boys' gangs, secret societies, literary societies, musical societies, sketch clubs, athletic associations and the like-demands a reasonable amount of judicious supervision on the part of parents and teachers. Without such supervision there is always danger of moral deterioration. Witness the very serious problem of the highschool fraternity and sorority, which has grown to such dimensions and assumed such an aspect that secondary school teachers with almost no exception view the movement with alarm and have persuaded the legislatures of several States to forbid fraternity membership to high-school students under penalty of suspension or expulsion.

Mental Changes.- Religious conversion is essentially an adolescent phenomenon; the great majority of conversions occur during the ages of 15, 16 and 17. Even when the young man or young girl fails to experience the typical conversion of the evangelical sort, he may be expected to undergo what might be termed a "secular conversion," to turn from selfishness to unselfishness, to reconstruct his attitude toward his fellows, to readjust his thinking so as to give due heed to the rights of others as compared with his own desires. In the later years of adolescence many young men and women also pass through a period of doubt, of skepticism, often of a serious sort. It is, of course, to be expected that the broadening intellectual horizon shall disclose inconsistencies between the newer views of life and the earlier notions of God, heaven, immortality, the nature of evil, the efficacy of prayer, the possibility of miracles, etc. Whether a different form of instruction in childhood might obviate the necessity of this reconstruction may be debated; in any event, adolescents need and deserve the utmost sympathy from those who are watching over their religious and moral development.

Akin to the growth of religious interests and the widening of social interests is the striking increase during adolescence in the range and variety of ideals; these differ in the two sexes, differ in the poor and the rich, differ with race but in all cases are prone to shift rapidly during the high-school ages. Since ideals form incentives to conduct of the most powerful sort, it is, clear that parents and teachers must take definite measures to supply material for their formation, to check the unwholesome or unworthy, to encourage the wholesome and worthy.

In the opinions of some psychologists adolescence is accompanied by impulses which, if unchecked, would carry their possessor "with almost resistless fury toward a life of crime." It is true that there is a sudden increase at this period in the commission of certain types of criminal offense, of which lying, stealing and vagabondage are most typical, and that we are prone to believe that all boys must Sow their "wild oats." Apparently, the mental turmoil of adolescence brings it about that certain young men and young women, before they have become "converted," before they have made the adjustment of self to society and taken on the responsible attitude of the adult, do exhibit for a time "streaks" of lawlessness, or rebellion against authority, but it is