being Hun: b. Durostorum on the Danube (now Silistria), c. 390 A.D.; murdered toward the end of 454. He was son of a distinguished commander Gaudentius (probably barbarian); in military service while a boy, and given to Alaric as a hostage after Pollentia in 403, remaining three years; later a hostage to the Huns; and gaining close intimacy with both races, of mixed results. After Honorius' death he supported the secretary Joannes against the Empress-regent Placidia, and brought an army of 60,000 Huns to his aid; but, Joannes having just been defeated and slain, the Huns were bribed to go home, and Aëtius was made Count of Italy and commander of the army, and became the chief adviser and prop of Placidia and her children. His main rival was Boniface, Count of Africa, at Carthage; and the accepted story is that by a base double intrigue he drove him into revolt and calling the Vandals from Spain into Africa; that on discovering the fraud Boniface fought in Italy first a slight battle and then a duel with Aëtius, was mortally wounded, and in dying counseled his wife to marry no one but his rival. It is very suspicious; but any way the Vandals overran North Africa; Boniface was killed; Aëtius in 432 had to flee to the Huns, came back the next year with an army of them, was reinstated, and for the next 17 years was the ruling spirit in the Western Empire, battling in Gaul with Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks, upholding by combined soldiership and policy the declining state, with a vigor and genius which made him the one great man of the Roman world in foreign eyes. In 450 the great Hunnish invasion under Attila (q.v.) came rolling down into Gaul with a volume it seemed impossible to stay, and the success of which might have blighted western Europe as their kinsmen the Turks have blighted the eastern portion. Aëtius by his diplomatic skill and knowledge of how to play on the barbarians induced Theodoric the Visigoth to league with him, followed Attila into the Seine valley, and on 20 Sept. 451 checked his progress in the mighty battle of Châlons (q.v.); the empire's last victory, and one of the world's turning-points. Attila's death not long after broke up the Hunnish coalition and delivered the empire from it; but it was also Aëtius' death sentence, and with his the empire's. Valentinian III, Placidia's son, hated Aëtius' power and had only submitted to it from fear of Attila; and, feeling now secure, seized the occasion of a visit of Aëtius to Rome, to arrange the marriage of his son with Valentinian's daughter, and stabbed him with his own hand. The sack of Rome by the Vandals shortly followed; and 22 years after Aëtius' murder the last of a succession of puppet emperors was pulled down by the barbarian Odoacer.

AËTIUS, a Roman theologian of the 4th century surnamed "the Atheist": d. Constantinople 367. He was founder of the AnomoanArian sect, named after him the Aetians, who held that the Homousian doctrine of the begotten son as God is self-contradictory, since the nature of God is eternal and unbegotten. He was banished from Alexandria by Constantius in 356, but was called to Constantinople by Julian in 361 and made a bishop.

AËTIUS, ǎ-ĕ'shi-us, a Greek physician of the 6th century: b. Amida, Mesopotamia. He

became court physician at Byzantium and was author of a voluminous work on medicine in 16 books, based on Oribasius, Galenos and other sources. A complete Latin translation by Cornarius was published (Basel 1542). Consult Zernos, 'Aetü sermo sextidecimus et ultimus' (1901).

ETNA. See ETNA.

ÆTOLIA, ē-tō'lîa, ancient Greece, a district_lying along the north shore of the Gulf of Corinth and having Epirus and Thessaly north, Acarnania west, separated by the Achelous and Locris and Doris east, separated by the Daphnus. The only other river of any size was the Evenus. Between it and the Achelous lies a marshy but fertile plain separated by the Aracynthus range on the north from a similar plain, of which two large communicating lakes

Trichonis (Apokuro) and Hyria (Zygos)— take up a great part. The rest of the country is crossed in all directions by rugged mountains, covered with forests and intersected by ravines. The plains produced plenty of corn and fine pasture and the Etolian horses were famous, while the mountain slopes gave excellent wine and oil; but for some reason the tribes never till late in Greek history entered into the fellowship of Greek civilization and then but imperfectly. They were wild, backward, anarchic and untamable; a race of robbers and pirates and the best recruiting-ground in Greece for mercenary soldiers. In the Heroic age, when most other Greeks were like them, and Odysseus' grandfather won distinction as an accomplished klepht, they were conspicuous; and Etolia was the scene of the Calydonian boar hunt. (See MELEAGER). When they reappear in Thucydides' pages on the Peloponnesian war, they are a congeries of unfederated independent tribes, living by plunder and the chase, with few and poor towns- Thermon, Calydon and Pleuron the chief - and taking to the mountains when hard pressed. They had a sort of union like the Iroquois League, for common action against a common enemy, but no corporate accountability and nobody to make a treaty with. After Alexander's death Antipater and Craterus invaded the country; and this, with the great new wealth their general trade of soldiering was bringing in and consequent increase of civilized interests, forced them to strengthen the bond into the Etolian League, first mentioned in 314 B.C., but of immense weight in later times and chief rival to Unlike the Achaian League and Macedonia. the former, it was a league of tribes, not towns. But like that, it was a democracy nominally, every freeman over 30 having a vote if he could come to the capital and cast it, but an aristocracy or timocracy in practice, only the wealthier being able. There was a Great Council, or Panatolicon, which met yearly at Thermon, elected all magistrates afresh and enacted general laws and voted on foreign policy; a smaller body of Apocleta, who were in fact a cabinet, who prepared all questions to put before the Great Council and seemed to have been permanent; a chief magistrate, the strategos (general), who was not only military commander but president of the assembly, put such questions as he chose (Speaker), was elected annually and was not allowed a vote on the question of peace or war; a hipparchos or cavalry com

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matter must be stated, not by way of recital or as a mere description, but as an allegation in the affidavit.

Affidavit of Defense.-A statement made in proper form that the defendant has a good ground of defense to the plaintiff's action upon the merits.

Affidavit to Hold to Bail.-An affidavit which is required in many cases before a person can be arrested.

AFFILIATION, is a species of adoption which exists in some portions of France and in other European states. The person affiliated succeeds equally with other heirs to the property acquired by the deceased to whom he had been affiliated, but not to that which he inherited. See ADOPTION. As to orders of affiliation in bastardy proceedings, see BASTARD.

AFFINE TRANSFORMATION, a-fin', in geometry, a transformation by means of which every point in a plane receives a displacement whose direction is parallel to a given fixed straight line called the axis of affinity, and whose magnitude is proportional to the distance of the given point from that axis. The affine transformation is projective; that is, it transforms every straight line into a straight line.

AFFINITY. In law, the connection existing in consequence of marriage between each of the married persons and the kindred of the other. By the marriage one party thereto holds by affinity the same relation to the kindred of the other that the latter holds by consanguinity; and no rule is known to us under which the relation by affinity is lost on a dissolution of the marriage more than that by blood is lost by the death of those through whom it is derived.

Affinity is distinguished from consanguinity, which denotes relationship by blood. The degrees of affinity are computed in the same way as those of consanguinity.

In Chemistry.-The tendency manifested by certain substances to unite with one another so as to produce new combinations, chemically different from the primitive ones. The word was originally applied in this sense in the belief that some obscure and undiscovered "affinity" or relationship existed between the combining substances; but it now appears probable that the contrary is more nearly true, and that the tendency toward combination is strongest, generally speaking, between bodies that are quite dissimilar; though it is impossible to lay down any fixed rule of this simple kind. The modern theory of chemical affinity is too elaborate to be treated adequately under a single heading. See CHEMICAL AFFINITY; DISSOCIATION; ELECTROLYSIS; EQUILIBRIUM, Chemical; MOLECULAR THEORY; SOLUTION.

AFFIRMATION, the act of affirming, in the sense of solemnly declaring in a court of law that certain testimony about to be given is true. Also, the statement made. First the Quakers and Moravians, who objected on conscientious grounds to take oaths, were allowed to make solemn affirmations instead; now everyone objecting to take an oath has the same privilege; but, as is just, false affirmations, no less than false oaths, are liable to the penalties of perjury.

AFFRE, Denis Auguste, afr', dé-nē ō-güst, French ecclesiastic: b. 27 Sept. 1793; d. 27 June 1848. From his prudent and temperate character he was made archbishop of Paris by Louis Philippe's government in 1840. Though not yielding blind submission to all its measures, he abstained from offensive opposition; and when a republic was proclaimed in 1848 he kept aloof from political strife, but displayed earnest zeal for the public welfare. During the June insurrection he climbed on a barricade in the Place de la Bastile, carrying a green bough in his hand as messenger of peace; but he had scarcely uttered a few words when the firing recommenced, and he fell mortally wounded, to die next day. He wrote several theological works and one on Egyptian hieroglyphics.

AFGHANISTAN, af-gan'i-stän, Asia, lit. "The country of the Afghans" is the term which, in the present day, designates those regions governed by the Amir of Kabul. The name "Afghan" is supposed to signify "noisy or tumultuous." It is very ancient in its origin and has gradually been assumed by the subjects of the Amir. During the Afghan conquest of India they were known as Pathans and Rohillas, terms which are still used in India to denote people of Afghan origin.

Topography.- Afghanistan, as it now exists, embraces the country between the River Oxus and the Indus, and consists of ranges of snow-covered mountains, deep ravines and valleys. Many of the valleys are well watered and very fertile. The surface on the northeast is covered with the lofty ranges of the Hindu Kush which reach 20,000 feet above the level of the sea. The total length of this range of mountains is estimated at 365 miles. The dominions of the Amir as now defined by various boundary commissions lie on the northwest frontier of India, and are bounded on the north by Russian Turkistan, on the west by Persia, on the south by Baluchistan and on the east by Cashmere and British India. It has an area of about 250,000 square miles and a mixed population estimated at 6,000,000. The rivers are very numerous. Among them are the Oxus, or Amu-daria, which separates Afghanistan from Russian territory; the Murghab, which rises in the Afghan hills and flows through the city of Merv; the Helmund watering the valleys of Afghan Turkistan; the Hari Rud, which waters the valley of Herat and runs a course of 245 miles to the Seistan Lake; the Kabul River, which flows from the city of Kabul and enters the Indus at Attok; the Kuram and the Gomal rivers, which enter the Indus in British terrivalley and is 200 miles in length. The only lake tory; the Lora which flows through the Peshin of importance is the Ab-i-Stada on the Ghilzai plateau about 65 miles from Ghazni. It stands at a height of 7,000 feet. It is about 44 miles in circuit and very shallow.

Provinces and Cities.- Afghanistan is divided into five provinces - Kabul, Herat, Kandahar, with chief cities of the same name, Afghan-Turkistan and Badakshan; and two territories Kafiristan and Wakhan. The province of Kabul is bounded on the northwest by Koh-i-Baba, on the north by the Hindu Kush, on the northeast by the Pangsher River and on the east by Jagdalik. It is very mountainous, but it also has large sections of rich

arable land. A very large portion of the population live in tents during the summer months. Herat extends from near the sources of the Hari Rud River on the east to the Persian frontier on the west. The Herat valley is most fertile, and it has been estimated that it is capable of supplying an army of 150,000 men. Kandahar is a most important province of the country. It extends over a wide area from Ghazni to the Persian frontier, and includes that part of Seistan which belongs to the Amir. Afghan-Turkistan was formerly the ancient province of Balkh but has now assumed its present condition through the treaty arrangements with Russia and Great Britain. The province of Badakshan lies to the extreme east of the kingdom and is bounded on the northeast by the River Oxus and on the south by the Hindu Kush. It consists of lofty mountain ranges and deep rugged valleys in which there is but little agricultural development. In the winter the climate is severe and the mountain passes are blocked by snow. Wakhan consists of two valleys watered by the Panja River. It is too elevated and sterile for tillage. Its lowest hamlet is 8,000 feet above the level of the sea.

Lines of Communication.— From India to Afghanistan there are four well-known lines of communication. The first is from the railway terminus at Peshawar through the Khybar Pass. The second from Thul through Bannu over the Paiwar and Shutturgardan passes to Kabul. The third through the Gullair Surwandi and Sargo passes to Ghazni. The fourth from the railway terminus at Quetta to Kandahar via the Bolan Pass.

There are four distinct lines by which Russia can move on to Herat: First from the Caspian by the Mashat route; second from Chikishliar by the Bendessan Pass and across the desert to Merve; third from Tashkend via Gherjuit; fourth by Balkh direct to Herat. The distance from Peshawar to Kabul is 191 miles in 20 stages varying from 8 to 12 miles. From Kandahar to Herat is 365 miles. From Herat to Balkh 370 miles. From Kabul to the Oxus by Balkh 424 miles.

Climate. As might be expected in a country having the physical conditions of Afghanistan there is the greatest variety of climate. In some parts, especially north of Kabul, the winter is rigorous. In the city of Kabul the snow lies for two or three months and the people seldom leave their houses. At Jalabad the climate is similar to that of the plains of India and the heat is intense in summer. Throughout Kandahar the summer heat rises to a very high temperature, but at Herat, although much lower than Kandahar, the climate in summer is more temperate and in winter much milder. The salubrity and charm of some localities is much praised by the people, although they have by no means that immunity from disease which the dry climate of the country and the fine physical condition of the people might lead us to suppose. Fevers are common, stone is frequent, and eye diseases prevail.

Natural Productions.- Afghanistan is supposed to be rich in minerals. Small quantities of gold have been taken from the streams flowing from the Hindu Kush. There were at one

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Vegetable Productions.- On the Alpine ranges of the country there is a magnificent growth of forest trees-cedars, pines, hazels and walnuts; and growing under the shade of these trees are rich varieties of honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn and rhododendron. The wild rose is found in all parts of the land and is an important export. Lemons and wild vines are in abundance. In cultivated districts the chief trees are mulberry, willow, poplar and ash. An important product is gum resin which grows abundantly in Kandahar and Herat. In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is a local luxury. Walnuts grow wild and are exported with the pistachio nut to both India and Russia.

Agriculture. In most parts of Afghanistan there are, as in India, two harvests. One of them is called the "Baharak" or spring crop, which is sown at the end of autumn and reaped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley and a variety of lentils. The other harvest is called "Paizah," and is sown at the end of the spring and reaped in autumn. It consists of millet, maize, beets, turnips, etc. The staple food of the country is wheat, but rice is largely imported from Peshawar. The growth of melons, especially of the "sarda melon," is an important cultivation as they are exported to Peshawar. Sugarcane is grown in the plains, and cotton in the warmer sections of the country. Tobacco is very widely cultivated and exported to Russia and India. The fruit crops are abundant. Every kind of European fruit pears, apples, peaches, oranges and grapes are produced in many varieties and of excellent quality. Mulberries are reduced to flour, and when prepared in cakes form the staple food of many districts. Grapes are cultivated to a very high degree. They are placed in boxes protected with cotton wool and exported in large quantities to India. The vineyards and peach gardens at Kandahar and Herat are very productive.

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Industrial Products and Trade.- Silk is produced in Kabul, Kandahar and Herat, and although it is largely consumed in domestic manufactures the best qualities are exported to Bombay. Excellent carpets, soft, brilliant and durable in color, are made in Herat and are very often sold in America as "Persian carpets." They are woven by the Nomads of the desert, and by the girls and women while the men are tending their flocks on the hills. Of recent years the Amir has given great attention to the manufacture of all kinds of articles, and English artisans have been brought into the country for promoting various industries. The chief exports of the country are wool, horses, silk, fruit, madder and asafoetida. Under the fostering care of the Amir the exports of Afghanistan are very rapidly on the

increase.

Animals.— Bears, jackals, hogs, monkeys, leopards, wolves, hyenas, wild dogs and cats are among the wild animals of Afghanistan. The wild ass is found in the southwest part of the country. During the breeding season Afghanistan appears to be the retreat of a variety of birds. Camels are frequently employed, although they cannot travel in rainy weather or through snow. The two-humped Bactrian camel of historic lineage is still seen. Horses are a staple export to India, especially the "Yabu," a stout heavy-shouldered pony about 14 hands high. The breed has been much improved as they are used for the cavalry of the Afghan army. The cows are the humped variety of the east and the dairy produce is an important feature in Afghan diet, especially the pressed and dried curd called "krut." There are two varieties of Afghan sheep both having the fat tail. One bears a white fleece and the other a russet or black one. The export of wool is very largely cultivated. Goats are also valuable on account of their hair which is used in the manufacture of shawls. Dog breeding is cultivated by the Afghan nobles as they are used in the sports of the field, especially for turning up quail and partridge for the hawk, hawking being a popular sport among both the nobles of Persia and Afghanistan.

The People. The origin of the Afghans is involved in obscurity and has given rise to various opinions. Some have supposed that they are descended from the soldiers of Alexander the Great whom he left in these countries. Others affirm that the Copts of Egypt or the Chaldæans and even the Armenians were their ancestors. The Afghans themselves maintain that they are of Jewish origin descended from Afghana who was in lineal descent from Abraham and Hagar by their son Ishmail. Some Afghan authors affirm that Afghana was the grandson of King Saul. Some writers state that they are descended from Jewish prisoners sent into the mountain by Nebuchadnezzar. It is related that when Nadir Shah marching to India arrived at Peshawar, the chief of the Yusufzai tribe presented him with a Hebrew Bible. There is no trace of Israelitish origin in the Afghan language (see Language and Literature), but there is not a single Afghan, from the Amir on the throne to the tiller of the soil, who does not believe that he is one of the "Beni Israil." Of the Afghans proper there are numerous clans, somewhat similar to the clans of the highlands of Scotland. Of these the most important are the Durranies, originally called Abdalis, who received the name from their famous clansman the poet king, Ahmad Shah. The Barakzais are a powerful tribe represented by the present reigning dynasty. The Gilzais were supreme in power at the beginning of the 18th century and are still a powerful clan, occupying the high plateau of Kandahar. The Yusufzais inhabit a district called Yusufzai in Pashawar valley. The Kizilbashes are Persianized Afghans who came into the country in the time of Nadir Shah. Hazaras, living in a district of that name, came from the east with the army of Ghenjiz Khan. They have Mongolian features, and speak a Persian dialect. The Hinkis are people of Hindu descent. They are the merchants and

The

bankers of the country and being idolaters they pay a poll tax, according to Muhammadan law, and are denied many privileges. In religion the Afghans are of the Sunni sect of Islam, and in jurisprudence belong to the Hanafi school of interpretation. The Kizilbashes are of the Shiah sect of Moslems. The people of Kafiristan are idolaters who are being rapidly converted to Islam.

As a race the Afghans are exceedingly attractive to the western traveler. They are handsome and athletic. They have fair complexions with aquiline features and long flowing beards. The women are exceedingly fair and handsome, and more intellectual than the average woman of the East. In cities they are rigidly secluded, but in outlying districts they are free to roam and are often employed in the field.

The Afghan, familiar with bloodshed from his boyhood, makes a valiant soldier, and there are many Afghans who have attained to high positions in the Anglo-Indian army. "The avenger of blood" is an institution among the Afghans and it is a point of honor for the next of kin to avenge a murder. With the Afghans hospitality is the very salt of life, and the ordinary salutations of the people bear this character. When passing along a road the mounted chieftain salutes the weary traveler with "may you never be tired," to which the man on foot responds "may you ever be prosperous." On approaching the village "Hujrah,” or guest house, the traveler is received by the host with the welcome of "may you ever come," to which the guest replies "may you ever remain master of this house." When the guest departs he is escorted to the village boundary and is sent on his way with the salutation "may God protect you."

The Afghans of to-day believe that their nation has a great future in harmony with the noble traditions of the past and they believe that they will again become a great and powerful nation. They are shut in by Russia on the one side and by Great Britain on the other, and in consequence of the British conquest of Baluchistan and Sind they have been deprived of a seaport. But they hope against hope and consequently avoid committing themselves to either Russia or Great Britain, and pose as the enemies of Persia.

Language and Literature. The national language of the Afghans is Pashto, or Pakhto, Pushto, or Pukhto, Pushtu, or Pukhtu, the pronunciation varying in different tribes. It is an Aryan or Hindu-Persian language, written in the Arabic character, with three letters peculiar to Pushto. It is only of late years that the language has been expressed in writing with a system of phonetic spelling. Specimens of Afghan prose and poetry are found in the "Kalid-i-Afghani," a work compiled for the use of students in 1872. As the Afghans claim an Israelitish origin Oriental scholars have thought that there were traces of Hebrew in certain Afghan words, but these words, without exception, have been brought into the language through the religious terminology of Islam.

Pushto is the spoken language of the people in the Trans-Indus territories of British India, including Peshawar, also in the province of Kandahar, and among the hills between the