other of these men was the author of a remarkable book on the witchcraft delusion in New England. The best authorities, notably James Savage and Wm. F. Poole, ascribe it to the younger, who was about 23 when it appeared. The book was entitled 'More Wonders of the Invisible World' (London 1700), the title being suggested by Cotton Mather's Wonders of the Invisible World.' The substance of it had been circulated in manuscript several years previous to its publication and its malicious attacks on Cotton and Increase Mather caused a bitter and life-long quarrel between the former and the author. The book abounds in malicious innuendoes, directly charges the Mathers with inciting and being in full sympathy with the Salem tragedies, and accuses the Boston ministers, in their advice of 15 June 1692, of endorsing the Salem methods. When the book was printed and came back to Boston it was denounced and hated because it was an untruthful and atrocious libel on the public sentiment of Boston, and on the conduct of its ministers. It is said that Increase Mather publicly burned it in the Harvard College yard. The animus of the book has been greatly misunderstood, and the popular idea that Calef was a stalwart agent in putting an end to Salem witchcraft is both a myth and a delusion. Its historical value and the author's character have been greatly overrated. His personal history is a blank which the most assiduous investigation has never been able to fill, or even to supply with the most common details. It is not known where or when he was born, when he died or where he was buried, although he lived in Boston and his will is on file in the Suffolk records. His book has now become very rare and copies bring high prices in the book auctions. It was reprinted at Salem in 1796, 1823 and 1861, and at Boston in 1828 and 1865.

CALENDAR, a system of dividing time into years, months, weeks and days for use in civil life, or a register of these or similar divisions. Among the old Romans, for want of such a register, it was the custom of the pontifex maximus, on the first day of the month, which began with the new moon, to proclaim (calare) the month, with the festivals occurring in it. Hence, calenda (the first of the month) and calendar. The periodical occurrence of certain natural phenomena gave rise to the first division of time. The apparent daily revolution of the sun about the earth occasioned the division into days. The time at which a day begins and ends has been differently fixed, the reckoning being from sunrise to sunrise, from sunset to sunset, from noon to noon, or from midnight to midnight. The changes of the moon, which were observed to recur every 29 or 30 days, suggested the division into months, but the month now used, though nearly equal to a lunation, is really an arbitrary unit; and, as a still longer measure of time was found necessary for many purposes, it was supplied by the apparent yearly revolution of the sun round the earth, producing the changing seasons. The time of this revolution is now known to be 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds, but as it has at various times been reckoned differently, this has given rise to corresponding changes in the calendar. This unit of time is called a solar year. The division

into weeks, which has been almost universally adopted, is not founded on any natural phenomenon, and, as it originated in the East, has been attributed to the divine command to Moses in regard to the observation of the seventh day as a day of rest. By other authorities it has been ascribed to the number of the principal planets, a theory supported by the names given to the days. It was not used by the Greeks, nor by the Romans, till the time of Theodosius. The great influence of the sun's course upon the seasons naturally attracted the attention of men at all periods to this phenomenon; accordingly all nations in any degree civilized have adopted the year as the longest unit of time. The year of the ancient Egyptians was based on the changes of the seasons alone, without reference to the lunar month, and contained 365 days, which were divided into 12 months of 30 days each, with five supplementary days at the end of each year. The Jewish year consisted of lunar months, of which they reckoned 12 in the year, intercalating a 13th when necessary to maintain the correspondence of the particular months with the regular recurrence of the seasons. The Greeks in the earliest period also reckoned by lunar and intercalary months. They divided the month into three decades, a system also adopted long afterward at the time of the French Revolution. It possesses the advantage of making the smaller division an exact measure of the larger, and under it the number of a day in the 10-day period readily suggests its number in the month. The Greeks in the time of Solon had a year of 12 months alternately of 29 and 30 days, the total number of days being 354, and the year being very nearly equal to a lunar one. Soon afterward a month of 30 days began to be intercalated every other year in order to reconcile their year with that founded on the sun's movement, but as the error was still very large the intercalary month was afterward omitted once in four times. The Jewish and also the Greek year thus both_varied in duration according as the intercalary month was introduced or omitted. This, with the uncertainty as to the exact duration of the year, was a constant source of confusion.

Various plans for the reformation of the calendar were proposed from time to time; but all proved insufficient till Meton and Euctemon finally succeeded in bringing it to a much greater degree of accuracy by fixing on the period of 19 years, in which time the new moons return upon the same days of the year as before (as 19 solar years are very nearly equal to 235 lunations). (See CYCLE). This mode of computation, first adopted by the Greeks about 432 B.C., was so much approved of that it was engraven with golden letters on a tablet at Athens. Hence the number showing what year of the moon's cycle any given year is is called the golden number. This period of 19 years was found, however, to be about six hours too long. This defect Calippus, about 102 years later, endeavored to remedy, but still failed to make the beginning of the seasons return on the same fixed day of the year.

The Romans first divided the year into 10 months, but they early adopted the Greek method of lunar and intercalary months, making the lunar year consist of 354, and after

ward of 355 days, leaving 10 or 11 days and a fraction to be supplied by the intercalary division. This arrangement, which was placed under the charge of the pontiffs, continued until the time of Cæsar. The first day of the month was called the calends. In March, May, July and October, the 15th, in other months the 13th, was called the ides. The ninth day before the ides (reckoning inclusive) was called the nones. The other days of the months they reckoned forward to the next calends, nones, or ides, whether in the same or the succeeding month, always including both days in the reckoning. Thus the 3d of March, according to the Roman reckoning, would be the fifth day before the nones, which in that month fell on the 7th. The 8th of January, in which month the nones happen on the 5th, and the ides on the 13th was called the 6th before the ides of January. Finally to express any of the days after the ides, they reckoned in a similar manner from the calends of the following month. From the inaccuracy of the Roman method of reckoning it appears that in Cicero's time the calendar brought the vernal equinox almost two months later than it ought to be. To check this irregularity Julius Cæsar invited the Greek astronomer Sosigenes to Rome, who, with the assistance of Marcus Fabius, invented that mode of reckoning which, after him who introduced it into use, has been called the Julian calendar. The chief improvement consisted in restoring the equinox to its proper place in March. For this purpose two months were inserted between November and December, so that the year 707 (46 B.C.), called from this circumstance the year of confusion, contained 14 months. In the number of days the Greek computation was adopted, which made it 3654. The number and names of the months were kept unaltered with the exception of Quintilis, which was henceforth called, in honor of the author of the improvement, Julius. To dispose of the quarter of a day it was determined to intercalate a day every fourth year between the 23d and 24th of February. This was called an intercalary day, and the year in which it took place was called an intercalary year, or, as we term it, a leap year.

This calendar continued in use among the Romans until the fall of the empire, and throughout Christendom till 1582. The festivals of the Christian Church were determined by it. With regard to Easter, however, it was necessary to have reference to the course of the moon. The Jews celebrated Easter (that is, the Passover) on the 14th of the month Nisan (or March); the Christians in the same month, but always on a Sunday. Now, as the Easter of the Christians sometimes coincided with the Passover of the Jews, and it was thought unchristian to celebrate so important a festival at the same time as the Jews did, it was resolved at the Council of Nice, 325 A.D., that from that time Easter should be solemnized on the Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox, which was then supposed to take place on 21 March. As the course of the moon was thus made the foundation for determining the time of Easter, the lunar Cycle of Meton was taken for this purpose; according to which the year contains 3654 days, and the new moons, after a period of 19 years, return on the same day as before. The inac

curacy of this combination of the Julian year and the lunar cycle must have soon discovered itself on a comparison with the true time of the commencement of the equinoxes, since the received length of 365 days exceeds the true by about 11 minutes; so that for every such Julian year the equinox receded 11 minutes, or a day in about 130 years. In consequence of this, in the 16th century, the vernal equinox had changed its place in the calendar from the 21st to the 10th; that is, it really took place on the 10th instead of the 21st, on which it was placed in the calendar. Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently called Aloysius Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan for amending the calendar, which, after his death, was presented by his brother to Pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the Pope assembled a number of prelates and learned men. In 1577 the proposed change was adopted by all the Catholic princes; and in 1582 Gregory issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all Catholic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, under the name of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the new style, as the other was now called the old style. The amendment ordered was this: 10 days were to be dropped after 4 Oct. 1582, and the 15th was reckoned immediately after the 4th. Every 100th year, which by the old style was a leap year, was now to be a common year, the 4th century divisible by four excepted; that is, 1600 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 1800, 1900 of the common length, and 2000 a leap year again. In this calendar the length of the solar year is taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds, the difference between which and the true length is immaterial. In Spain, Portugal and the greater part of Italy the amendment was introduced according to the Pope's instructions. In France the 10 days were dropped in December, the 10th being called the 20th. In Catholic Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands the change was introduced in the following year, in Poland in 1586, in Hungary 1587. Protestant Germany, Holland and Denmark accepted it in 1700, and Switzerland in 1701. In the German empire a difference still remained for a considerable time as to the period for observing Easter. In England the Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1752, in accordance with an act of Parliament passed the previous year, the day after 2d September becoming the 14th. Sweden followed in 1753. Russia and Greece still adhere to the Julian calendar, which, by the interjection of two more days, 1800 and 1900 being regarded as leap years, now differs from the Gregorian calendar by 13 days. Thus 14 Jan. 1917 of the new style will be 1 Jan. 1917 in Greece and Russia.

The change adopted in the English calendar in 1752 embraced another point. There had been previous to this time various periods fixed for the commencement of the year in various countries of Europe. In France, from the time of Charles IX, the year was reckoned to begin from 1 January; this was also the popular reckoning in England, but the legal and ecclesiastical year began on 25 March. The 1st of January was now adopted as the beginning of the legal year, and it was customary for some time to give two dates for the period intervening between 1 January and 25 March,

that of the old and that of the new year, as January 1752-53.

In France, during the Revolutionary epoch, a new calendar was introduced by a decree of the National Convention, 24 Nov. 1793. The new reckoning was to begin with 22 Sept. 1792, the day on which the first decree of the new republic had been promulgated. The year was made to consist of 12 months of 30 days each, and, to complete the full number, five fête days (in leap year six) were added at the end of the year. Instead of weeks, each month was divided into three parts, called decades, consisting of 10 days each; the other divisions being also accommodated to the decimal system. This calendar was abolished at the command of Napoleon, by a decree of the Senate, 9 Sept. 1805, and the common or Gregorian calendar was re-established on 1 January of the following year. The Mohammedans employ a lunar year of 354 days and 12 lunar months, which have alternately 29 and 30 days. Thirty years form a cycle and 11 times in every cycle_an extra day is added at the end of the year. The months and the seasons do not correspond and the first of the year may fall at any time during the solar year. The months are named Muharram, Saphar, Rabia I, Rabia II, Jomadi I, Jomadi II, Rajab, Shaaban, Ramadan, Shawall, Dulkaada and Dulkeggia. The Mohammedan era is computed from the first day of the year of the Hejira, or flight of Mohammed to Medina. It corresponds with 15 July 622 of the Christian era. The Mohammedan year which began on 28 Oct. 1916 was the 15th year of the 45th cycle, or the year 1335 of the Mohammedan era. See also CHRONOLOGY; CYCLE; EPOCH; HEJIRA.

Bibliography.- Boll, Griechisches Kalendar (Heidelberg 1910); Bowditch, 'Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas' (Cambridge, Mass., 1910); Burnaby, Elements of the Jewish and Mohammedan Calendar' (London 1901); Langdon, Tablets from the Archives of Drehem, with a Complete Account of the Origin of the Sumerian Calendar (Paris 1911); Mahler, 'Etudes sur le calendrier égyptien (ib. 1907); Plunket, 'Ancient Calendars and Constellations (London 1903); Schram, Kalendariographische und chronologische Tafeln' (Leipzig 1908).

CALGARY, Canada. The city of Calgary is situated in the province of Alberta, at the junction of the Bow and Elbow rivers, 840 miles west of Winnipeg, and 2,262 miles west of Montreal. The site is picturesque, as the city lies in a species of natural bowl. From Calgary, the Rocky Mountains 80 miles away are clearly visible. Before the advent of the Canadian Pacific Railway 30 years ago, Calgary was an important trading post and headquarters for the ranching country of southern Alberta. With the establishment of through transcontinental communication, Calgary assumed a place on the map and rapidly began to develop commercially.

Situated as it is at the entrance of two great passes through the mountains and surrounded by both a fine agricultural and ranching country, Calgary has naturally become an important railway centre. Lines belonging to the Canadian Pacific run north to Edmonton and south via Lethridge through the Crow's Nest

VOL. 5-13

Pass. The city is also served by the lines of the Grand Trunk Pacific and the Canadian Northern.

The city has an altitude of 3,410 feet above sea-level, and enjovs a bracing and healthful climate. The average temperature is 35.2 and the rainfall 19 inches. While low temperatures are of regular occurrence in the winter, the climate is agreeably modified by the warm Chinook winds which frequently bring a cold spell to a sudden and welcome close.

Buildings.- Calgary is a very substantially built city, and is fortunate in having nearby extensive quarries of excellent sandstone. Calgary stone, as it is called, has been used with excellent effect in the Provincial Parliament Buildings at Edmonton. Handsome public and office buildings and business blocks line the downtown streets. Knox Presbyterian Church, built of Calgary stone, is one of the finest specimens of ecclesiastical architecture in western Canada.

Government.—Calgary was founded in 1883 and incorporated in 1894. Its municipal government consists of an elective mayor and council and an elective board of commissioners. Calgary employs a slightly modified form of the single tax. The city owns its own electric street railway, with 60 miles of trackage in operation. It operates its own gravity water system and sewerage system, and owns its own asphalt paving plant. Natural gas sells for 35 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, and at 15 cents for power. Water power has also been brought in and of this 31,100 horse power is already available.

Religion and Education.- Calgary is the seat of Anglican and Roman Catholic bishoprics, and all the leading religious denominations are well established. Educational facilities are amply and generously provided. There are 32 public and high schools, four Roman Catholic separate schools and a Normal School. The provincial government opened in 1916 an Institute of Technology and Manual Arts.

Industrial Progress.- Western Canada is substantially an agricultural country, but Calgary has had a considerable industrial development, and is the chief distributing centre between Winnipeg and the Pacific. Though coal is not mined in the immediate vicinity, it is worked on an extensive scale at Lethbridge and Bankhead, both of them points within 100 miles. Natural gas has been piped into the city from Bow Island, 100 miles distant. Oil was discovered in 1914 a short distance south of Calgary, and the indications are promising. The foothills of the Rockies to the west form an admirable grazing country and large herds of stock are raised. These contribute the raw material for the successful stockyards and extensive packing plants which are amongst Calgary's most important industries. Excellent clays for brickmaking exist. Calgary is the site of one of the Dominion government's great interior storage elevators and has become an important centre in the grain trade. Large milling establishments flourish. Manufactures include biscuits, boxes and breakfast foods. A large business is carried on in building materials, harness and leather goods, iron and metals, aerated waters, beer, etc. The Canadian Pacific has erected at Calgary car shops costing over $3,500,000, with an annual wage bill of

Dean of the University of Alberta. CALHOUN, kål-hoon', John Caldwell, American statesman: b. Abbeville District, S. C., 18 March 1782; d. Washington, D. C., 31 March 1850. He was graduated with distinction at Yale College in 1804, and was admitted to the South Carolina bar in 1807. After serving for two sessions in the legislature of his native State, he was elected to Congress in 1811. From that time until his death, a period of nearly 40 years, he was seldom absent from Washington, being nearly the whole time in the public service, either in Congress or in the Cabinet. When he first entered Congress the disputes with England were fast approaching actual hostilities, and he immediately took part with that portion of the dominant party whose object was to drive the still reluctant administration into a declaration of war. They succeeded, and, as a member of the Committee on Foreign Relations, he reported a bill for declaring war, which was passed in June 1812. When Monroe formed his administration in 1817, Calhoun became Secretary of War, a post which he filled with great ability for seven years, reducing the affairs of the department from a state of great confusion to simplicity and order. In 1824 he was chosen Vice-President of the United States under John Q. Adams, and again in 1828 under General Jackson. In 1828, a protective tariff was enacted which bore very heavily on the agriculturists of the South and hence was known throughout that section as "The Tariff of Abominations." Mr. Calhoun prepared a paper declaring that the "United States is not a union of the people, but a league. or compact between sovereign states, any of which has the right to judge when the compact is broken and to pronounce any law to be null and void which violates its conditions." This paper was issued by the legislature of South Carolina and was known as The South Carolina Exposition. This view of the United States constitution as a compact between the States had been many years before strongly expressed in the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, the former being drawn up by James Madison, often styled the "Father of the Constitution," and the latter by Thomas Jefferson. The Kentucky resolutions had suggested nullification as a remedy. Alexander Hamilton in The Federalist frequently spoke of the United States as a "Confederate Republic" and a "Confederacy" and called the constitution a "compact." Washington frequently referred to the constitution as a "compact," and spoke of the Union as a "Confederated Republic." At the time of the Louisiana Purchase Hon. Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts advocated the right and advisability of secession and Hon. Josiah Quincy of the same State in 1811 expressed similar views. Hence John C. Calhoun propounded no new or strange doctrine, but one which had found advocates before, and in the North as well as in the South.

In 1828, the friendly relations between Mr. Calhoun and President Jackson were broken off, when the latter ascertained that Calhoun had sought to have him called to account for

his acts in the Seminole War. This breach was still further enlarged when Calhoun refused to co-operate with President Jackson in the effort to reinstate Mrs. Eaton in Washington society.

When Mr. Calhoun found that the repeal of the tariff of 1828 could not be secured through President Jackson, he resigned the Vice-Presidency and entered the Senate from South Carolina. On 26 July 1831 he published a paper favoring free trade and declaring that the "great conservative principle of Union is nullification." The tariff question was settled by a compromise in 1832.

Mr. Calhoun feared that the slavery quarrel would some day disrupt the Union and therefore endeavored to check all discussion of this issue. He opposed Jackson's removal of the funds from the National Bank and also assailed the "spoils system." He supported Van Buren's "sub-treasury system," favored his re-election and secured for him the electoral vote of South Carolina. He defended Tyler for vetoing the recharter of the United States Bank and as Secretary of State under that President was largely instrumental in bringing about the annexation of Texas. He regretted the division of the Union into sections, but, recognizing a fact which already existed, he advocated a dual executive, one from the North, the other from the South, each having the power to veto an act approved by the other; thus preventing the passage of any law offensive to either section. His motive in this was the preservation of the Union, which he dearly loved.

He died 31 March 1850, having spent the last few months of his life in writing his 'Disquisition on Government' and his Discussion on the Constitution and Government of the United States' which has been pronounced the most remarkable discussion of the rights of minorities ever written. Mr. Calhoun was of attractive personality and of irreproachable character, to which Daniel Webster testified in his grand eulogy on the great South Carolinian.

His 'Collected Works' appeared 1853-54, and his correspondence, edited by Jameson, in 1900. Consult Lives by Jenkins (1851); Von Holst (1882); Benton, Thirty Years' View' (1854); Dodd, 'Statesmen of the Old South' (New York 1911); Hunt, J. C. Calhoun' (Philadelphia 1908); Peck, H. C., The Jacksonian Epoch' (1906); Peck, H. T., 'American Party Leaders' (New York 1914); and Cal-. houn's correspondence, edited by J. F. Jameson (1900).

J. T. DERRY,

Author, History of Georgia.

CALHOUN, Simon Howard, American Congregational missionary, linguist and translator: b. Boston 1804: d. 1876. A graduate of Williams College in 1829, from 1836 to 1874 he labored as a missionary in the Levant and Syria. An expert in Turkish and Arabic he collaborated with William Goodell on the first Turkish translation of the Bible.

CALHOUN, William James, American diplomat: b. Pittsburgh, Pa., 5 Oct. 1848. He practised as a lawyer at Danville, Ill., from 1875 to 1898, when he removed to Chicago to become senior member of the law firm of Calhoun, Lyford & Sheean. In 1897 President McKinley. had appointed him special commissioner to

Cuba and in 1898, member of the Interstate Commerce Commission. President Roosevelt appointed him special commissioner to Venezuela in 1905 and he served as Minister to China from 1909 to 1913. The subsequent Chinese policy of President Wilson was severely criticised by him.

CALI, ka-le', Colombia, South America, a city near the confluence of the Cali and Cauca rivers in the department of Cauca, and north of Popayán, the capital of that department. It is one of the ancient cities of the republic (founded in 1536) and to-day is important on account of its location in an agricultural district and on the Pacific Railway, from Buenaventura to Cali and thence through the Cauca Valley, a total distance of 108.1 miles. Cali is also connected by a short steam tramway with the Cauca River. Pop. 27,747.

CALICE, COUNT Heinrich, Diplomatist, ambassador and linguist of international fame: b. August 1831; d. Goerz, 28 Aug. 1912. His first activities began in the year 1857 when he was appointed consul for the Dual Monarchy at Constantinople. Later he served in Liverpool, China and Japan. In 1876, while the Serbian War was in progress, he was sent with full powers, by Count Andrassy, as the Austro-Hungarian representative, to the eventful conference that ended in initiation of hostilities between Russia and Turkey. At the conference Count Ignatieff, the Russian Plenipotentiary, strongly urged armed entry into Serbia, but was resisted by Lord Salisbury, supported by Count Calice. In 1880 Baron Calice was appointed Austrian Ambassador to the Porte, which position he held for 26 years. Notwithstanding the fact that he presented four ultimatums to Turkey, he was at all times a trusted friend of the exSultan. Baron Calice was the oldest active diplomatist in Europe, and became the dean of the diplomatic corps in Constantinople.

CALICO-PRINTING, the art of producing on calico or cotton cloth variegated patterns by the process of printing; the object, as a rule, being to have the colors composing the designs as fast as possible to washing and other influences. It is similar to the art of dyeing, but differs from it in so far that the coloring matters are fixed on certain parts of the fabric only, to form a pattern. Linen, wool and silk fabrics are printed in a similar manner, but less extensively. The origin of the art of printing is probably coeval with that of dyeing (q.v.). India is generally regarded as the birthplace of calico-printing, and the word calico is derived from the name of the Indian town Calicut, where it was at one time extensively manufactured and printed. Calico-printing, as an Egyptian art, was first described by Pliny in the 1st century. Indian printed chintz calicoes were introduced into Europe by the Dutch East India Company, and the first attempts at imitating them in Europe are said to have been made in Holland, but at what exact date is uncertain. The art, however, soon spread to Germany and England, where it is said to have been introduced about 1676, two of the earliest works being situated at Richmond on the Thames, and at Bromley Hall, Essex. In 1738 calico printworks were established in Scotland in the neighborhood of Glasgow, and in 1764 at Bam

ber Bridge, near Preston, in Lancashire. At the present time the chief seats of the calicoprinting trade in Great Britain are still in the neighborhood of Glasgow and Manchester. The chief European seat of calico-printing is Mülhausen, in Germany, and it is practised in various towns in France, Austria, Russia, Switzerland, Holland and the United States.

Calico-printing is of a highly complex character, and enlists not only the co-operation of the arts of designing, engraving, bleaching and dyeing, but also an important element of success, the science of chemistry.

The first operation to which the gray calico is submitted, as it comes from the loom, is that of singeing. This consists in burning off the loose downy fibres from the surface by passing the pieces rapidly, in an open and stretched condition, over red-hot plates or a row of smokeless Bunsen gas flames. The object of singeing is to obtain a smooth printing surface on the calico, thus ensuring the production of clear, sharp impressions during the printing process. The next operation is that of bleaching, which consists in boiling the fabric with weak alkaline solutions, followed by a treatment with cold dilute solutions of bleaching-powder and acid, interspersed with frequent washings with water. By these means the natural impurities of the cotton are removed, and the calico ultimately presents a snow-white appearance. A number of pieces are now stitched together, wrapped on a wooden roller, and passed through a socalled shearing machine, in which, by means of a spiral cutter similar to that in a lawn-mower, any projecting knots, loose fibres or down are finally removed. In this condition the calico is ready for the printer.

The printing of the patterns upon the cloth may be carried out in various ways, the earliest method being by means of wooden blocks, on which the figures of the patterns stood out in relief. Where several colors were employed in one pattern, a block for each color was necessary. In a set of blocks for one pattern, each block, although at first having the same design drawn upon it, was cut in such a manner that it ultimately transferred only a single color, which appeared in different parts of the pattern. When all the blocks had been applied, the various colors printed completed the original design. To ensure accurate juxtaposition of the colors, each block was furnished with brass points at the corners, in order to guide the workman. The printer first furnished the face of the block with the requisite color by pressing it several times on a piece of woolen cloth suitably stretched and supported on a socalled color-sieve, and which had been previously brushed over with color by a boy attendant. The printer then applied the block to the surface of the calico, which was stretched on a long table covered with felt, striking the back of the block with his hand or with a small mallet. The operation of block printing was slow and tedious and though many improvements have been introduced, and it can even be effected by mechanical power, as in the socalled Perrotine machine, it is now only employed to a very limited extent for certain special kinds of work. Another mode of printing, introduced about 1760, is by means of engraved copper-plates, but its employment is also similarly restricted.