is perhaps the most remarkable monument to the genius of the American people for selfgovernment. Ninety thousand wanderers, homeless, wifeless and chaotic in the wilderness, fevered by enormous and sudden gains, without cities or laws or communication with the outside world, within a year installed soberly and firmly all essential machineries of an American State. The desperadoes who flocked in from all parts of the world - including a large contingent of Australian convicts—were firmly suppressed, though not at once. Between 1849 and 1856 there were in San Francisco alone 1,000 homicides and seven executions. In 1856 the second vigilance committee, composed of the best citizens, after full and formal trial, publicly hanged half a dozen of the worst desperadoes, and banished scores of others on pain of death. Since that time life and property have been quite as safe in California as in the Eastern States. Chinese exclusion, though finally a national measure, was brought about by California, which then contained a majority of all Chinese in this country. In 1879 California voted exclusion by 154,638 to 883. The number of Chinese in the State has decreased from 75,132 in 1880 and 72,472 in 1890 to 45,753 in 1900. The bitterness aroused by the exclusion struggle has passed, and Chinese are well treated.

California entered the Union as a free State, thus giving balance of power to the North. In State elections since the war it has been peculiarly independent, having gone Democratic in 1867, 1875, 1882, 1886 (Democratic governor and Republican lieutenant-governor, who became governor by his superior's death) and 1894; Republican in 1871, 1879, 1890, 1898 and 1902.

In politics, California is counted "Safe Republican." For its first half century it came near alternating between the two great parties; but from 1902 to 1918 has elected only Republican governors (including a "Progressive"). In national politics it has given its electoral vote in the same 16 years for only one Democratic President Wilson, second term. This was largely by the women's vote, and on the slogan "He kept us out of war." The presidential vote of California was decisive. California was the sixth State to adopt (1911) equal suffrage, and the first State of considerable size-being more than double the total population of the five earlier equal suffrage States. In 1916, out of a population of 3,000,000, the total registration was 1,314,446; the total vote nearly 80 per cent of this, ranging from 39 per cent to 46 per cent women. No woman has been elected to a Federal or State office; about 30 have been appointed. In counties and cities, over 50 women have been elected to officefrom 18 superintendents of schools, to one county clerk and the only councilwoman in the county (Los Angeles). There are several policewomen, probation officers, etc.; and many serving on civic commissions. The question of their eligibility on juries is not yet (1918) determined, and depends on the ruling of the judge. Women have procured the introduction and enactment of over a dozen humanitarian laws of varying importance and value, chiefly concerned with women and children, prohibition and the social evil."

Next to the gold excitement (see Mining and Population) the most sensational era in

California history was the great bonanza silver period from 1859 to 1880. The mines were in Nevada, but were owned in San Francisco, and an era of stock-gambling theretofore unheard of in history, and probably not yet surpassed, sprang from their sensational yield. Stocks on the San Francisco board rose $1,000,000 a day for many months, and sales in one year were $120,000,000. Everybody gambled in stock, from bankers to scrubwomen. In 1875, with less than 200,000 population, San Francisco had 100 millionaires. The "Consolidated Virginia" mines paid $1,000,000 per month dividends for nearly two years. One lode was valued at nearly $400,000,000; $250,000,000 was spent in "developing" a small group of hills. The decadence of these great bonanzas, following the subsidence of gold mining to sober methods, at last turned more general attention to agriculture, the real wealth of the State. (See Agriculture). In 1880 California was first in the Union only in gold, sheep and quicksilver; all other industries being far down the list. It is now first in gold; ninth in sheep; first in diversity of crops; first in wines, total fruits, canned fruits, dried fruits, barley; first in number of irrigated farms; first in average wages in manufacturing establishments; first in borax, asphalt, quicksilver, platinum; second in copper; third in wheat; first in beet sugar; first in hops; first in oranges, lemons, olives and all semi-tropic fruits, honey, prunes, walnuts, almonds, beans, grapes, pears, peaches, cherries, apricots, etc.; first in electric power transmission; third in ship-building; second in petroleum; fifth in total value products per farm; eleventh in value of farm products per capita; twelfth in total value of manufactured products.

The highest California gold product in any one year was $85,000,000. The total agricultural products for 1916 were $194,566,000; and total value of manufactured products (1916) $712,800,764.

a

A South Sea bubble as wild as the Comstock silver stock-craze was the great "Land Boom" of southern California, 1886-87, period of land-gambling never quite equaled in any other part of America. An area as large as New England was involved, with varying intensity; but the chief focus of excitement was in Los Angeles, San Bernardino and San Diego counties. Scores of thousands of city lots were staked out far from towns; hundreds of miles of cement sidewalks and curbs were laid; scores of big hotels and other buildings erected as baits, and great quantities of lands (purchased at from $10 to $30 per acre) were sold in town lots at $1,000 to $10,000 per acre. In Los Angeles County alone, with a population then not over 50,000, real estate transfers recorded in 1887 were over $100,000,000. cursion auction sales of new "towns" sometimes realized $250,000 in a day; and $100 was often paid for place in the line waiting for a sale to open. The collapse of this gigantic bubble, early in 1888, was as extraordinary in its freedom from disaster as it had been in its inflation. Not a bank failed, nor a business house of respectable standing; and while desert town lots reverted to acreage and acreage values, all really desirable real estate, rural and urban, has constantly advanced in value every year thanks to the uninterrupted continuance of large and wealthy immigration. Building of

Ex

1846 1846-47 1847 1847 1847-49 1849 1849

1849-51 1851-52 1852-56

1856-58

1858-60 1860 1860-61 1861-63 .. 1863-67 1867-71 1871-75

1875

1875-79

1879-83

Democrat. Republican.

Democrat. Republican

Democrat.

Republican

1887-91

1891-95

Democrat

1895-99

Republican.

Progressive.

1883-87 1887

1899-1903 1903-07

1907-10 1910

Bibliography.-General History: Hittell, T. H., History of California' (4 vols., 1897, exhaustively indexed and by one author); Bancroft, H. H., History of California) (7 vols., 1890, by anonymous staff, and inadequately indexed); Hittell, J. S., History of San Francisco (1876, concise and reliable, to its date).

Mission Period: Duhaut-Cilly, A., Voyage autour du monde, 1826-29) (2 vols., 1835); Forbes, Alex., 'History Upper and Lower California (1839); Jackson, Helen Hunt ("H. H".), Glimpses of Three Coasts' (1886), reprinted in Glimpses of California and the Missions' (1902); Englehardt, F. Zephyrin, 'Missions and Missionaries of California) (4 vols. and index vol.); Clinch, California and its Missions> (2 vols.); Carter, C. F., California Missions' (a careful digest of all important facts about the Missions, in a small book); Chase, T. Smeaton, and Saunders, Chas. F., The California Padres and their Missions' (1915). The vast bulk of sources on this period is in Spanish, and inaccessible to English students.

Contemporary writers on Pioneer period American occupation: Colton, Rev. Walter, Three Years in California' (1850); Thornton, J. Q., 'Oregon and California in 1848) (2 vols., 1849); Bryant, Edwin, 'What I Saw in California (1849); Revere, Lieut. J. W., "Tour of Duty in California' (1849); Soulé, F., Annals of San Francisco (1855); Taylor, Bayard, 'California and Mexico' (1850), and 'Home and Abroad' (1862, 2d series); Majors, A. M. (manager "Merchants' Express"), Seventy Years on the Frontier) (1893); Newmark, Harris, Sixty Years in Southern California) (1916).

Mining: Shinn, C. H., 'Mining Camps' (1885), and Story of the Mine' (1896); also both Hittells, sup.

Physiography, Mountains and Forests: Muir John, The Mountains of California' (1894), and Our National Parks' (1901).

Climate, Modern Development and General: Warner, Chas. Dudley, Our Italy) (1892); Nordhoff, Chas., 'California for Health, Pleasure and Residence' (1882), and 'Northern California (1874); Van Dyke, T. S., Southern California' (1886), and 'Millionaires of a Day) (1892) (Land-Boom); Lindley and Widney, California of the South' (1896); "H. H.» as above; Smythe, Wm. E., Conquest of Arid America (1900); Lummis, Chas. F., The Right Hand of the Continent' (in press).

Statistical: Census United States; California State Reports; Bulletins United States Census, California State Bureaus, California Development Bureau; McCarthy's Statistician and Economist' (San Francisco); vid. Reports, United States Department Agriculture, etc. CHARLES FLETCHER LUMMIS, Founder Emeritus, The Southwest Museum, Founder and President, Landmarks Club.

CALIFORNIA, Gulf of, or SEA OF CORTEZ, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, separating Lower California from the Mexican mainland. It is 700 miles in length, varies in width from 40 to 100 miles, and has a depth ranging from 600 feet near the head to over 6,000 feet near the mouth, containing many islands in the upper part. There is but little navigation carried on there. On the western coast are pearl fisheries. The gulf was discovered by Cortez, and for some time was called after him. The river Colorado empties into the northern extremity.

CALIFORNIA, Lower or Old, a territory of the republic of Mexico, forming a peninsula in the Pacific Ocean, united on the north to the continent, from which it is separated on the east, throughout its entire length, by the Gulf of California. It extends from about lat. 22° 40′ to 32° 40′ N. It is about 750 miles in length, and in different places 30, 60, 90 and 150 miles wide. The coast forms many capes, bays and havens, and is fringed by numerous islands. A chain of mountains extends throughout, of which the greatest height is from 4,500 to 4,900 feet above the sea, the latter being the height attained by its culminating point, Cerro de la Giganta. The chain is almost destitute of vegetation, having only here and there a few stunted trees or shrubs. It has a single volcano, and possesses distinct traces of volcanic origin. The foot of the range is covered with cactuses of remarkable size. Some of the hollows, where the soil is formed of decomposed lava, are tolerably fertile. On the plains the soil is often of the richest quality, and when the advantage of irrigation can be obtained, raises the most abundant crops; but deficiency of water. Rain seldom falls in sumthis advantage often fails, owing to the great mer, in most of the region ranging from under 10 to 25 inches, and the streams are very insignificant. The climate varies much according to locality. On the coast of the Pacific the temperature ranges in summer from 58° to 71°. At a distance from the coast, where the sea breeze is not enjoyed, the summer heat is excessive. The principal food products are maize, manioc wheat, grapes, oranges, lemons, pineapples and other choice fruits; cattle raising, fishing, gold mining and pearl fishing are also successfully carried on. La Paz, in the

was

south, is the capital; Ensenada, in the north, is a rising port. Lower California was explored by order of Cortez in 1532-33, and visited by Drake as early as 1579. In 1697 the Jesuits formed establishments in the territory, built villages and missions, and in some measure civilized the natives. On their expulsion in 1767, the missions were carried on by the Dominicans. Pop. about 52,244, of whom probably about half are Indians.

CALIFORNIA, Pa., borough in Washing ton County on the Monongahela River, 50 miles south of Pittsburgh, on the P., V. and C. Railroad. The largest coal mine in the world is located here (Vesta No. 4). There are also manufactures of glass bottles and foundry and machine shops. The resources of the two banks amount to $1,735,045. The Southwestern State Normal Schools and the borough public and high school are situated here. The latter and the borough building are fine structures. The government is in the hands of a council of seven members. Pop, about 2,500.

CALIFORNIA, University of, a university which is a part of the State educational system in California, but supported as well by the income from endowments and by national aid.

In 1869 the College of California, which had been incorporated in 1855 and which had carried on collegiate instruction since 1860, closed its work of instruction and transferred its property, on terms which were mutually agreed upon, to the University of California.

The university was instituted by a law which received the approval of the governor, 23 March 1868. Instruction was begun in Oakland in the autumn of 1869. The commencement exercises of 1873 were held at Berkeley, 16 July, when the university was formally transferred to its permanent home. Instruction began at Berkeley in the autumn of 1873. The new constitution of 1879 made the existing organization of the university perpetual.

The professional schools were contemplated in the original plan, but not organized till later. The governing body, the board of regents, consists of the governor and lieutenant-governor of the State, the speaker of the assembly, the State superintendent of public instruction, the presidents of the State Agricultural Society and the Mechanics' Institute of San Francisco, and the president of the university (all regents ex officio), and 16 others appointed by the governor for a 16-year term with the advice and consent of the senate. The uni.ersity comprises the following colleges and departments: (1) In Berkeley: the colleges of letters and science, commerce, agriculture (courses at Berkeley; farms and laboratories, etc., at Davis, Riverside, Whittier, Chico, Santa Monica, Tulare County, Meloland and Kearney Park, Fresno County), mechanics, mining, civil engineering, chemistry; the schools of architecture, education, jurisprudence, medicine (first year and part of second year), the university extension division, the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology; (2) at Mount Hamilton: the Lick Astronomical Department (Lick Observatory); (3) at Santiago, Chile: the D. O. Mills Observatory; (4) in San Francisco: the California School of Fine Arts, the Hastings College of Law, the medical school (part of second

year, and the third, fourth and fifth years, including the University Hospital, the George Wililams Hooper Foundation for Medical Research, the college of dentistry, the California college of pharmacy, the museum of anthropology, archæology and art; (5) in Los Angeles: Los Angeles Medical Department (graduate instruction only); (6) the Scripps Institution for Biological Research at La Jolla; (7) the Herzstein Research Laboratory of Biology at Pacific veying at Swanton. Grove, and (8) the Summer School of Sur

In 1896 Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst informed the regents that she proposed to erect a building, but wished first a worthy general plan for the Berkeley campus, and that she would bear the expense of an international competition to obtain such a plan. In 1898 an international jury assembled at Antwerp and voted upon more than 100 plans submitted, awarding prizes to 11 competitors, who were invited to visit the university and to prepare revised plans for a second competition. In September 1899, the jury met again in San Francisco and gave the first prize ($10,000) to M. Emile Bénard of Paris. After a long stay in Berkeley and many conferences with the university authorities, M. Bénard undertook a revision of his drawings to fit the plans to the actual necessities of the site and the prospective needs of the university. In December 1909, he submitted a design which the regents adopted as the permanent plan. To Mr. John Galen Howard was entrusted the development of the plan, as supervising architect. In realization of the Hearst plan, several buildings have been completed including the Hearst Memorial Mining Building, given by Mrs. Hearst for the college of mining of the university and as a memorial to the late Senator George Hearst; California Hall, for which an appropriation of $250,000 was made by the California legislature, and the president's house. Another notable building is the beautiful Greek theatre, an open-air auditorium, seating 8,000, patterned after the classic theatres of Greece and the Greek colonies, and given to the university by Mr. William Randolph Hearst. Among other new buildings is the library, for which generous provision was made by Mr. Charles F. Doe of San Francisco, who bequeathed $700,000 for this purpose.

Since this time gifts and appropriations have made possible the erection of a series of new buildings. As a memorial to her husband, the late Judge John H. Boalt, Mrs. Elizabeth J. Boalt in 1908 made a gift of about $100,000 to the university for the erection of a Hall of Law. Members of the bench and bar of California subscribed an additional $50,000 and on the 28th of April, 1911, the Boalt Hall of Law, constructed of white granite and completely equipped with library, offices and class rooms, was formally dedicated. Upon the death of Mrs. Jane K. Sather on 12 Dec. 1911, President Wheeler, as her trustee, sold to the regents of the university property valued at $400,000 which Mrs. Sather had left as a gift to the university. Of this sum $200,000 was devoted to the erection of the Sather Tower, a white granite campanile 302 feet in height, designed after several similar towers in Italy, but not a direct replica of any one. In 1917 the Sather Bells, made in Europe

at a cost of $10,000, were hung in the Sather Tower and the Sather Esplanade was constructed at its base at a cost of $40,000. Benjamin Ide Wheeler Hall, the new classroom building, was made ready for occupancy in January 1917. It was built at a cost of $720,000, of white granite, and represents the Georgian tradition in architecture. It contains an auditorium seating 1,020 people, 62 classrooms, 48 studies for members of the faculty (each study accommodating two), a large and comfortable faculty room, and accommodations for 4,889 students at one time. Hilgard Hall, the new agriculture building, was dedicated in the summer of 1917. It was built of reinforced concrete at a cost of $362,000, to house instruction in agronomy, citriculture, forestry, genetics, pomology, soil technology and viticulture. The exterior of this building is notable for the highly original treatment of decoration in sgraffiti- the use of colored cements for adornment of concrete surfaces. Work was started in 1917 on Gilman Hall, which is being built at a cost of $220,000, to house the research laboratories in chemistry. It will be used by the faculty and by graduate students. Reinforced concrete is the building material used. These three buildings were designed by John Galen Howard, professor of architecture and supervising architect in the university. Under his direction also has been completed the university library, at a cost of about half a million dollars, making the total cost of the building $1,400,000. Special features of the new portion are a second reading room seating 240 readers and used for periodicals (of which the university receives 8,000 titles), 20 seminar rooms, 22 faculty studies and space for bookstacks to hold 1,250,000 volumes, although at present this space is only utilized for some 600,000 volumes. In San Francisco the university has built the university hospital at a cost of $700,000, with accommodations for 225 patients. It is mainly intended as a laboratory for the university's medical school and the Hooper Foundation for, Medical Research.

The university has 542 officers of instruction, 5,850 students, a library of 360,000 volumes, an art gallery, museums and laboratories, also the agricultural experiment grounds and stations, which are invaluable adjuncts of the farming, orchard and vineyard interests of the State. In San Francisco there are 150 officers of instruction, besides demonstrators and other assistants, and 775 students. Tuition in the colleges at Berkeley, during regular sessions, is free to residents of California; non-residents pay a fee of $10 each half year. In the professional colleges, in San Francisco, except that of law, tuition fees are charged. The instruction in all the colleges is open to all qualified persons, without distinction of sex. The constitution of the State provides for the perpetuation of the university with all its departments.

In 1917 there were 5,850 students in all the departments, of whom about 60 per cent, due to the entrance of the United States into the war, were women; it is also to be noted that a comparatively large proportion of students is in the general or academic courses, as distinguished from the technical and professional courses.

CALIGULA, Gaius Cæsar Augustus Germanicus, Roman Emperor, a sor of Germanicus

His

and Agrippina: b. 31 Aug. 12 A.D., in the camp at Antium, and brought up among the legions; d. 24 Jan. 41 A.D. He received from soldiers the surname of Caligula, on account of his wearing the caliga, the boots commonly used by the soldiers. He understood so well how to insinuate himself into the good graces of Tiberius that he not only escaped the cruel fate of his parents, and brothers, and sisters, but was even loaded with honors. Whether, as some writers inform us, he removed Tiberius out of the way by slow poison is uncertain. When the latter was about to die he appointed, according to Suetonius, Caligula and the son of Drusus, Tiberius Nero, heirs of the empire. But Caligula, universally beloved for the sake of his father, Germanicus, was able without difficulty to obtain sole possession of the throne. Rome received him joyfully, and the distant provinces echoed his welcome. first actions were just and noble. He interred, in the most honorable manner, the remains of his mother and of his brother Nero, set free all state prisoners, recalled the banished and forbade all prosecutions for treason. He conferred on the magistrates free and independent power. Although the will of Tiberius had been declared by the Senate to be null and void, he fulfilled every article of it, with the exception only of that above mentioned. When he was chosen consul he took his uncle, Claudius, as his colleague. Thus he distinguished the first eight months of his reign by many magnanimous actions, when he fell sick. After his recovery, by a most unexpected alteration, which has given good grounds to suspect his sanity, he suddenly showed himself the most cruel and unnatural of tyrants. The most exquisite tortures served him for enjoyment. During his meals he caused criminals, and even innocent persons, to be stretched on the rack and beheaded; the most respectable persons were daily executed. In the madness of his arrogance he even considered himself a god, and caused the honors to be paid to him which were paid to Apollo, to Mars, and even to Jupiter. He also showed himself in public with the attributes of Venus and of other goddesses. He built a temple to his own divinity. At one time he wished that the whole Roman people had but one head, that he might be able to cut it off at one blow. He frequently repeated the words of an old poet, Oderint dum metuant - "let them hate so long as they fear." He squandered the public money with almost incredible prodigality. One of his greatest follies was the building of a bridge between Balæ and Puteoli (Puzzuoli), in order that he might be able to boast of marching over the sea on dry land. He had it covered with earth, and houses built on it, and then rode over it in triumph. He gave a banquet in the middle of the bridge, and to celebrate this great achievement ordered numbers of the spectators whom he had invited to be thrown into the sea. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph, because, as he said, he had conquered nature herself. After this, he made preparations for an expedition against the Germans, passed with more than 200,000 men over the Rhine, but returned after he had traveled a few miles, and that without having seen an enemy. Such was his terror, that, when he came to the river, and found the bridge ob