incited her sons Geoffrey and Richard Cour de Lion to rebel against their father, was imprisoned in 1174, and remained in confinement until after Henry's death in 1189, when she was released by his successor, Richard I, who placed her at the head of the government on his departure for the Holy Land. She negotiated his marriage with the daughter of the king of Navarre, and went to Germany with his ransom from captivity. She afterward .retired to the abbey of Fontevrault and surviving Richard, lived to see him succeeded by one of her other sons, John Lackland, the signer of Magna Charta. She was a favorite personage with the troubadour poets of the day and appears in a very different light in their works from that in which she is represented by French and Norman chroniclers. Consult Adams, 'History of England, 1066-1216' (London 1905).

of

ELEANOR CROSSES, memorials Eleanor of Castile. She was the wife of Edward I of England, and d. Lincolnshire 1290. Her body was taken to London by her sorrowing husband who subsequently erected a monument, terminating in a cross, at every spot where her funeral train had rested. These places were Lincoln, Grantham, Stamford, Geddington, Northampton, Stony Stratford, Woburn, Dunstable, Saint Albans, Waltham, East Cheap and Charing Cross, but the list varies slightly as given by different authorities. The crosses at Geddington and Waltham remain, although considerably altered by restoration in the latter case. That at Charing Cross, destroyed in 1647, was replaced in 1863 by a new one reproducing the original.

ELEATICS, e-le-ǎt'iks, a Greek sect, so called because founded at Elea, in Sicily, by Xenophanes of Colophon, about 538 B.C. Zeno, who flourished 464 B.C.; Empedocles, 435 B.C.; and Melissus 428 B.C., were leading philosophers of this school. That which from the commencement distinguished the Eleatic school from the Ionic was 'ts method, which in the one case was dialectic, in the other empirical. Starting from the observation of external nature, the Ionians endeavored to discover some elementary principle, as water, air, fire or a combination of elements, by the action of which the phenomena they observed might be accounted for. The Eleans made the abstract idea of Being or God, deduced from the contemplation of the universe as a whole, their starting-point; and their reasonings sometimes led them to deny the reality of external phenomena altogether. This was the result of the development which the principles of Xenophanes received from his followers Parmenides and Zeno, the latter of whom denied the existence of variety in any form. See also IONIAN PHILOSOPHY; IONIAN SCHOOL; XENOPHANES; ZENO. Consult Windelband, 'History of Philosophy.'

ELECAMPANE, ĕl-e-kăm-pān' (Inula helenium), a plant of the sunflower family (Composite). The stem is three or four feet high, thick, pubescent and branching above; the radical leaves are often two feet or more in length; the flowers are large and yellow. The plant is a native of Europe and Asia, naturalized in the United States. It grows abundantly along roads and in waste places. The root is perennial

and has a bitter aromatic taste. Elecampane is cultivated occasionally as an ornamental plant and the flowers are sometimes used to adulterate arnica. The root was formerly much employed in medicine, but has fallen into disuse. It contains a number of active principles, the most important being a volatile oil, a camphor, inulin and helenin. By reason of the camphor and the oil the action of the drug is somewhat stimulant and stomachic. Elecampane was once very much used in the treatment of bronchitis and amenorrhoea. As a hot infusion it subserves practically the same purpose as camomile tea, being a good diaphoretic.

ELECTION, in law, the voluntary choice between two or more permissible lines of conduct. In equity the choice is between two or more alternative rights or claims which were plainly intended by the person who has granted them to be mutually exclusive. In criminal law it is the choice incumbent on the prosecution to proceed on one of a number of independent felonies of the same degree. In the law of wills the widow's election is her choice whether she will make her claim under her husband's will or under the statute, which gives her a right to a specified part of her husband's estate. An election may be explicit and announced, or it may be implicit in the conduct of the person bound or entitled to elect. In neither case is the election binding unless made with a knowledge of all the relevant and material facts; but if these facts are known, the election is final.

ELECTION, in politics, the mode of determining the person who is to fill an office by the votes of the qualified electors. Alternative methods are selection by someone already in authority or by lot. The electors may be the entire body of those of the citizens of the region concerned who fulfil certain very general requirements, as is the case in the various State elections for governor or the election of senators and representatives, or may be some relatively small body of officials, as in the "indirect" election of senators by the State legislatures, which was alone legal until 1913, when the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified. In the case of the elected kings of Poland and Hungary and of the Holy Roman emperor, the election was in the hands of a greater or smaller group. The election of the President of the United States, though nominally entrusted to a representative body of men- the electoral college is now to all intents and purposes of the direct type, as by custom the electors are mere mouthpieces of the popular vote. The honesty and fairness of elections is secured by stringent laws and by various devices to secure secrecy of the ballot. These are discussed under the head of BALLOT. See also ELECTIONS; CORRUPT PRACTICES ACTS; ELECTORAL FRAUDS AND SAFEGUARDS AGAINST; VOTE, VOTERS, VOTING.

Election is a very old political device. While election by acclamation has always been a recognized means of determining the chief in certain savage communities, it was in the city-states of Greece and in republican Rome that the ballot first became the basis of the government of a highly organized civilized community. This right was limited to some more or less restricted class of free citizens, and was gener

ally exercised in an open assembly not unlike the New England town meeting - the Ecclesia of Athens or the Roman Comitia. From the period when the empire first made the comitia a mere form and then abolished it altogether to the reappearance of the assembly of the people as a custom of the northern barbarians, election ceased to play any important part in politics. It survived in a measure in the Church and it reappeared in a very limited form as the method of selecting the Holy Roman emperor. The first renascence of a genuinely popular election after the races of the north had lost almost all memory of their original custom of settling disputes and electing their chiefs in the council of the warriors, was in the form of the election of the officers of the guilds and of the free towns. (See article, ELECTIONS and cross-references thereunder). Consult Aristotle, 'Politics'; Freeman, 'Comparative Politics' (London 1873); Jones, (Readings on Parties and Elections in the United States' (New York 1912); Stanwood History of the Presidency' (Boston 1912); Woolsey, 'Political Science (New York 1877).

ELECTION, in theology, the word (singular) is applied to the act of God in selecting some persons from the race of man to be regenerated by his spirit, to be justified, to be sanctified, and to receive other spiritual gifts in this world, with eternal life in the next. The Calvinistic doctrine makes this election take place by God's mere good pleasure, without any foreseen merit in the individuals chosen. The Arminian one considers that God chooses those whom he foresees will accept the offer of the Gospel and act as true Christians till death. The third chapter of the Westminster Confession, entitled "Of God's Eternal Decree," uses more decided language. The strongest adherents of this view are in the Presbyterian churches, though there is a tendency to soften the harsher features of the system. Many Baptists hold the same doctrine, as do the Calvinistic Methodists.

ELECTION DISTRICT. See DISTRICT. ELECTIONS. As defined by the courts an election is the act of choosing a person to fill an office by any manifestation of preference but usually by the vote of those entitled to exercise the elective franchise, as distinguished from appointment to office by a single person or officer, as a king, president, governor or mayor. See APPOINTMENTS.

Classification of Elections. If the great body of the voting population decide between candidates, the election is said to be popular or direct. If limited to a small number who themselves have been chosen by the mass of voters, the election is said to be indirect or representative. The choice of United States senators by the State legislatures until the 17th Amendment became law is an example of indirect elections. Theoretically the President is elected by the Presidential electors chosen in the various States but in practice these electors vote for the party candidate. (See ELECTORS, UNITED STATES PRESIDENTIAL). Elections are also classified as national, State and municipal, according to the status of the office to be occupied by the successful candidate.

Early Colonial Elections.- From the earliest colonial days, local officials in New England

were chosen in a meeting of the "freemen," much as they are to-day in town meeting. Probably the first elections held in America were of the delegates who attended the Virginia legislative assembly in 1619. The earliest date specified if that of the election of John Winthrop as governor of Massachusetts "by the general consent of the Court," 18 May 1631. The next in order is the election at Plymouth, 1632-33, although elections were authorized in this colony in 1620 and in the colony of Massachusetts in 1630, and undoubtedly they were held from that time onward. A few years later the records show that elections were conducted by proxy, chosen deputies casting the votes of the freemen at the "court of elections." According to some authorities proxies meant usually the carriage of the votes, at first the ballots themselves (slips of paper or grains of corn, etc.), and later the records. The history of the process is hard to interpret. In New Hampshire elections were held from 1633 onward, and in Rhode Island after 1636-38. In Connecticut the earliest election was in 1639; in Maryland 1638. All the southern colonies except Georgia elected assemblies almost from the start, and summonses for one session were issued in Georgia. In New Amsterdam (now New York) the right to elect its own magistrates was long withheld by Director Stuyvesant. "If," he said (1653), "the nomination and election of magistrates were to be left to the populace who were the most interested, then each one would vote for some one of his own stamp, the thief for a thief, the rogue, the tippler, the smuggler, for a brother of iniquity, that he might enjoy greater latitude in his vices and frauds." In New Jersey elections did not begin till 1668, although authorized in 1665. The first election in Pennsylvania was in 1683. In the Carolinas the first recorded elections were in 1691, but minor elections probably were held as early as 1663. In Georgia all officials were appointed up to 1754.

Authority to Hold Elections.- To be valid an election must have some lawful authority behind it; unless the power be expressly granted by the constitution or by the legislature acting under constitutional authority, the right to hold an election cannot exist or be lawfully exercised. The legislature may prescribe the forms to be observed in the conduct of elections. Laws enacted to ascertain the will of the people at free popular elections may be mandatory (such as those setting the day of election, requiring the vote to be by ballot, or establishing places within the designated precincts where the election shall be held), or directory (such as provisions prescribing the conduct and return of an election). Minor irregularities in observing the directory laws which do not prevent electors from freely and fairly exercising their right of suffrage or from having their votes properly counted do not vitiate an election, providing such irregularities do not constitute infractions which the law declares shall nullify an election. Statutes providing for the holding of a local election usually require the presentation to some local authority of a petition signed by the prescribed number of qualified persons; when properly presented, the authorities appointed to call the election have no discretion and after the order is issued it is not open to collateral attack.

The time and place of holding regular elections are generally appointed in the public laws, and therefore, as electors are supposed to know the law and accordingly would receive notice from the statutes themselves, no proclamation or notice is mandatory, but proclamations for special elections must be issued by the authority named in the statutes and in strict accordance with those statutes. This notice is particularly important in cases of special elections to fill vacancies caused by death, resignation or removal, where the statutes do not require that the vacancy be filled at the next general election. Usually the statutes require that, for a certain time before election day, notices of a coming election shall be published in one or more newspapers or posted in the form of handbills either at the polling places or at a number of public places. In elections to determine specific questions, the notices must fully inform the voters of the questions to be decided and such notices must not only clearly show the authority for the order but also that they themselves have been signed by the proper officers.

Time and Place of Holding Elections.To be legal the time and place of holding an election must be fixed in advance, either by law or by legally authorized officials; and votes cast differently will avail nothing regardless of the eligibility of the candidates voted for. If the time be fixed by general law no other time will be legal, save where the statutes provide for special elections; if the statutes fix the time, no power may adjourn the election to a subsequent day, unless the constitution or statutes permit such adjournment, though legislatures are within their province in postponing elections in order to do away with frequent and unnecessary elections. A slight change in the voting place should not invalidate otherwise properly conducted elections, provided no voter is misled or deprived of his vote by reason of the change. Under some circumstances the voting place may even be outside the election district, but the electors of the district who vote thereat would not be disfranchised on that account. Congress has power to determine the time of choosing the Presidential electors and on 1 March 1792 enacted that the choice should be made within 34 days preceding the first Wednesday in December. On 23 Jan. 1845 Congress enacted that Presidential electors be chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November in each quadrennial year, and later (2 Feb. 1872) provided that, beginning with 1876 members of the House should be elected on the same day in biennial years ("even" years), though some exceptions were allowed under the amending act of 3 March 1875, whereby certain States were permitted to continue holding their elections at an earlier date. Amendment XVII to the Constitution (effective 31 May 1913) provides for the election of senators by the direct vote of the people but makes no stipulation as to the time of election, merely providing that "when vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct." Presumably, there

fore, elections of senators are held the year preceding the expiration of the incumbent's term of office, the time being designated by the State legislature. Most of the State elections, and in many cases local and municipal elections, are held on the same day as the national election, but in many States minor officials are not elected in the same year as the governor and lieutenant-governor. All the States hold their elections in November with the exception of Louisiana, Maine and Vermont, the election of the first named occurring in April and of the latter two in September. If a vacancy occur in an elective office, the governor of a State may call a special election or hold the choice over until the next regular election.

Classification of Votes and Voting-Independent, Popular, Preferential, Compulsory. See VOTE, VOTERS, VOTING.

Electoral Qualifications, Colonial and Modern.- Details respecting the franchise rights and privileges of the various States will be found in the articles ALIENS; CITIZENSHIP IN THE UNITED STATES; ELECTORAL QUALIFICATIONS; NATURALIZATION; UNITED STATESSUFFRAGE IN THE; VOTES, VOTERS, VOTING; WOMAN SUFFRAGE.

Terms of Office, Age Limits and Qualifications for Office.- See ELECTORAL QUALIFICATIONS, TERMS OF AND QUALIFICATIONS FOR OFFICE.

Party Nominations, Primaries, Etc.- The four principal methods of choosing candidates are by the delegate convention system, the direct primary, the non-partisan primary, which is used in many municipalities, and nomination by petition only. The term "primary" is usually applied to the preliminary elections held by the political parties to nominate candidates or to choose delegates whose duty is to nominate candidates to compete in the following regular election. In either case party members only are allowed to vote in the primaries. Originally candidates for local offices announced their own candidacy or perhaps were nominated by an informal caucus; the legislative caucus nominated candidates for State offices; and aspirants for the Presidency were nominated by the Congressional caucus (see CAUCUS); but the latter two caucuses were soon discarded and by 1832 the convention system had been generally adopted. (See CONVENTION, POLITICAL). This system was so indirect and complicated and so flagrantly abused that regulation of nominations became imperative and by 1900 party elections had been placed under the same legal restrictions as the regular elections. Beginning with 1900, however, the convention plan has been rapidly supplanted by the direct primary, under which candidates are selected by the direct vote of the party. Some States also allow each party a direct vote on choice for Presidential nominees. (See PRIMARY, DIRECT; PRIMARY, PRESIDENTIAL PREFERENCE; and in this connection see also Initiative; Referendum; Recall). Under the non-partisan primary (which really is not a primary at all) the whole electorate participates in the selection of candidates later to be voted upon at the regular elections. This system has been developed in connection with the commission form of government (q.v. See also CITY MANAGER) as worked out in Des Moines, Iowa, and other places. The two candidates for mayor and the eight candidates for

the four commissionerships receiving the highest number of votes may participate in the second and final election. In all elections, party emblems, circles, or other designations are prohibited in connection with candidates' names. In some cities (as Berkeley, Cal), if any candidate receive a majority of all the votes cast, a second election is unnecessary so far as that particular office is concerned. In some localities preferential voting has been adopted so that national political parties will be eliminated from local elections. If any number of persons not constituting a political party be entitled to make nominations in the usual way and to have the names of their candidates placed upon the official ballot, they may present to the proper officials a petition containing the required number of signatures of qualified electors and their nominees may enjoy the same privileges on the official ballot as accorded to those regularly nominated by an existing party. Nominations by petition are used chiefly in local elections, and, unless required by statute, no party emblems or designations are used in connection with the names of candidates. Under a law passed in 1907 Wisconsin permits nominations to be made by petition only; but after nominations are filed upon petition of 5 per cent of the electors a preliminary election may be called to select the two candidates for each office and those two only are voted upon at the final election. In many States a declaration of party affiliation is necessary under the primary law. Illinois further prohibits the participation in a primary of anyone who has voted in the primary of another party within the preceding two years. Some States (as New York) use a system of party registration similar to that used for general elections. When the voter registers at that time an opportunity is presented to him to declare his party affiliation, if any, and from these declarations a list of party voters is compiled which is used as the registration for the ensuing primary election. The California law of 1899 and the Oregon law of 1901, which allowed electors to vote for either party without divulging party preferences, were declared unconstitutional. Under the Wisconsin law of 1903 the ballot is absolutely secret and the voter may vote for the candidate of whichever party he may choose, but he may not vote with more than one party at any election. The "open primary eliminates the party test which is applied in the "closed primary." In the non-partisan primary no party test can be applied since the elector votes for any candidate he may choose regardless of party ties.

Campaign Expenses and Contributions.See CORRUPT PRACTICES ACTS; ELECTORAL FRAUDS; BALLOT; BRIBE; Lobby; Congress, ETC.

Voting Districts. So that participation in elections may be easy, counties, cities and towns are divided into small precincts or election districts, each containing a few hundred voters and operating under the supervision of an election board. Whether composed, as at different periods and in different States they have been, of counties, cities, townships, boroughs, wards of cities, or of precincts, election districts always indicate subdivisions of the State's territory marked out by known boundaries prearranged and declared by public authority. As nearly as possible, city precincts contain an

equal number of voters; they must be entire wards or contained wholly within one ward or one town and cannot be composed of parts of adjacent wards or districts. The election district, however, is never used as a unit of representation in local government nor as an administrative division in the conduct of municipal business. See DISTRICT.

Polling Places.-The law designates the manner of the internal arrangements of polling places so that the voter will have perfect freedom in marking and depositing his ballot. Where the Australian ballot is used, the statutes require that polling places contain booths of sufficient size to accommodate one voter and so constructed that the voter will be screened while preparing his ballot. Booths should be shut off by guard rails and no unauthorized person allowed to go within these confines. In most States no official ballot may be taken outside the polling place. Official ballot boxes are required at all elections, and prior to the opening of the polls these boxes must be opened for public inspection. During primaries and elections the polls are policed in accordance with the law (though the presence of a police officer at each polling place is not authorized by express statutory provision), and in some cases election officers may exercise the authority of justices of the peace and punish election offenders. Stringent laws have been passed in many States to protect the voter from undue influence while in the act of voting. In most States electioneering is prohibited within a certain distance from the polling place; in some States polling places must be a certain distance from saloons; and in the advanced States saloons are closed on election days. Oregon requires that no "political badge, button, or other insignia shall be worn at or about the polls on any election day."

Registration of Voters. All persons possessing the constitutional qualifications of electors may be and in nearly all the States must be officially registered on the voting lists in the districts wherein they reside in advance of each election, the period varying in the several States. If a State constitution or statute make registration a specified time before election day an imperative prerequisite to the right to vote, those not so registered cannot vote even if their other qualifications comply with constitutional requirements. Nevertheless the courts have held several times that even if a person be not a qualified voter under the constitution on the day the registration books are closed, yet if he acquire the necessary qualifications before election day his vote cannot lawfully be rejected merely because he has not registered. While the constitutional qualifications must be left intact, without excisions or additions, the legislature may prescribe regulations to determine if the prospective voter possess the required qualifications; hence the passage of a registry law requiring registration as a condition precedent to the right to vote is not unconstitutional; where such a law exists an election held without such registration is void, but if the State constitution provide that the legislature shall enact a registration law and the legislature fails to do so, an election without registration is valid. Arkansas and Texas do not require registration; in Oklahoma registration is required in all cities of the first class;

in Kansas and Ohio in cities of the first and second classes; in Kentucky in cities of the first, second, third and fourth classes; in Washington in all cities and towns and in voting precincts with a voting population of 250 or more; in North Dakota in cities and villages of 800 or more inhabitants; in Maine in cities and towns of over 2,000 inhabitants; in Iowa and Nebraska in cities of 3,500 and 7,000 or more inhabitants, respectively; in Missouri in cities of 100,000 or more inhabitants; and in all cities of Pennsylvania. In all incorporated cities, villages and towns of Illinois which have adopted the election commissioner act of the State, unregistered persons may not vote, but elsewhere they may swear in their votes if they produce a creditable witness to prove their electoral qualifications. In Rhode Island non-taxpayers are required to register each year before 30 June. In the larger cities voters must appear in person before the registering officers, but in rural districts the voter often is registered by official declaration and the registration list is compiled by local authorities, subject to revision on demand of interested parties. In order to prevent false registration some of the large cities have personal identification laws. The old suffrage laws of the Southern States and the complicated registration laws practically eliminated the negro vote, and even under the recent suffrage amendments to the constitutions, voting by negroes is a difficult task since registrars must determine whether an applicant possesses the required suffrage qualifications, can "read the constitution, or understand it when read to him, or give a reasonable interpretation thereof," or understands "the duties and obligations of citizens under a republican form of government."

Registry Boards.-The election process is controlled by official (and usually compensated) boards of registrars, who must be qualified voters in the election districts wherein their duties are to be performed; their duty on the days designated as registration days is to prepare lists of qualified electors to be used as check lists at the polls. If registration officers wrongfully and wilfully refuse to enter the name of a qualified elector on the voting list they are liable in a civil action for damages. The boards are usually bi-partisan and are generally supplemented by watchers from the various parties which have nominated candidates. At election time each party usually has one or more challengers who endeavor to prevent election frauds by challenging those illegally attempting to vote or those whose right to vote is considered doubtful. Generally, any citizen who believes an elector is attempting illegally to cast a ballot has the right to challenge him and to state his objections. In Massachusetts cities and towns, at specified times preceding elections, the registry boards are in session for the purpose of allowing applicants to prove their possession of the required suffrage qualifications, but in Boston the police, under the supervision of a special listing board, make a house-to-house canvass to enroll voters. Under the New York law of 1908 the registry boards in cities of over 1,000,000 inhabitants must very carefully examine the voter, not only as to name, age, birthplace, address, occupation, years of residence in State and at address, and where and

when he last voted, but also if he be married, if he occupy the entire house, or only a floor or room and which one; and they must obtain the name of lessee of the building, etc. Hence, if challenged when voting, a comparison of the voter's answers with the data previously supplied will quickly and quite dependably prove his identity, which can also be more accurately determined by a comparison of signatures, since those who can write must sign the registry book. All lists of registered voters are public records and are open to reasonable inspection by the public.

The Voting Process.-The names and residences of voters are recorded in the pollbook in numerical order as they enter the polling places, after which the election official gives the voter a ballot usually corresponding in number with his number in the pollbook, though the courts have decided that, where a State constitution requires that popular elections shall be by secret ballot, any statute requiring the numbering of ballots with figures corresponding with the figures placed opposite the voter's name on the poll list is unconstitutional and void, since it utterly destroys the secrecy of the ballot. The voter then retires to the booths provided so that the ballot may be marked secretly, but should he be unable to read or write or be physically incapacitated he may request assistance from one of the election officials. All members of the election board (but no one else) may witness the preparation of the ballot of such voter, but must not reveal the name of the person for whom the elector has voted. After marking the ballot the voter folds it so that the contents may not be seen and hands it to the designated election officer, who deposits it in the ballot box, which is kept locked, the key being in the custody of the chairman of the board; this completes the process and a clerk records in the pollbook the fact that the elector has duly voted. Should a ballot be mutilated, the elector may obtain a perfect one from the election officers on surrendering the defective one. Legislatures may prescribe official ballots and prohibit the use of any other; they may also provide for printing on the ballots the names of regularly nominated candidates or of independent candidates, provided in so doing they do not violate the voter's constitutional right to vote for the person of his choice. No legislature is empowered to restrict electors in their choice of candidates or to prohibit them from voting for others than those whose names are on the ballots. Nominations entitle nominees to places on the official ballot, printed at public expense but the voter may write or paste on his ballot the names of eligible candidates (whether nominated or not by any convention, caucus or meeting) other than those printed thereon, and this right is generally recognized since blank spaces next to the printed names are left for such writing or pasting. The right of an elector to vote may be challenged if his qualifications appear to be defective or if he be suspected of some fraudulent practice. An oath or affirmation is then administered to the challenged elector under which he swears truthfully to answer all questions respecting his qualifications, but if the elector refuse to be sworn and examined he loses the right to vote. If the answers to these ques