nearly 10,000,000 visitors. A third French International Exhibition was held at Paris in 1878; area occupied 140 acres; visitors 17,000,000. A fourth French International Exhibition was opened by President Carnot in 1889 to commemorate the centenary of the Revolution, the visitors to which numbered over 25,000,000. One of its chief features was the Eiffel tower, of iron, 984 feet high. The series of exhibitions which were held at South Kensington, London, included The Fisheries (1883), The Health (1884), The Inventions (1885) and the Exhibition of Colonial and Indian products (1886); the latter of which was visited by 5,550,749 visitors. Besides these, exhibitions have been held in Edinburgh (1886), at which there were 2,769,632 visitors; Manchester (1887) at which there were 4,765,000 visitors; and Glasgow (1888), with 5,748,379 visitors. In 1899-1900 a huge International Exhibition was held at Paris, but, though visited by about 47,000,000 persons, was not a financial success. It occupied the Champ de Mars and extensive areas on both sides of the Seine.

In 1893 the fourth centenary of the discovery of America by Columbus was celebrated by the World's Columbian Exposition, at Chicago. It excelled all predecessors in conception, scope and grandeur. Every nationality contributed to the exhibits and many countries possessed their. own buildings. The "White City," as it was called, was opened by President Cleveland 1 May and closed 30 October. It occupied about 600 acres, at Jackson Park, on the shore of Lake Michigan, including the "Midway Plaisance." Nearly every State in the Union was represented by its own edifice. The principal buildings were Machinery Hall, the Art Palace and those devoted to transportation, mining; electricity, agriculture, manufacture and liberal arts (covering 44 acres), government, administration, fisheries, horticulture and anthropology. The total admissions for the period named were 27,539,521, and the receipts from this source $10,317,814. The largest attendance on any one day Chicago day, 9 October- was 716,881. Other notable exhibitions in the United States were the California Mid-Winter Exhibition, held in San Francisco in 1894; the Cotton States and Industrial Exposition held in Atlanta, Ga., September to December 1895; the Tennessee Centennial Exposition, held in Nashville, Tenn., 1 May to 31 Oct. 1897; the TransMississippi Exposition in Omaha, Neb., 1 June to 1 Nov. 1898; the Pan-American Exposition, in Buffalo, N. Y., from 1 May to 2 Nov. 1901; the South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition, held in Charleston, from 1 Dec. 1901 to 1 June 1902, and the World's Fair at Saint Louis, Mo., in 1904, in celebration of the Louisiana Purchase, drew 19,694,855 attendance and cost $15,000,000; the Lewis and Clark Exposition in Portland, Ore., 1 June to 15 Oct. 1905; the Jamestown Tercentenary Exposition, at Hampton Roads, Va., 26 April to 30 Nov. 1907; the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Seattle, Wash., 1 June to 30 Nov. 1909; the Panama-Pacific Exposition, to celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal, held at San Francisco, 20 Feb. to 4 Dec. 1915, drawing a total attendance of 18,871,957; the PanamaCalifornia Exposition, at San Diego, Cal., 1 Jan. to 31 Dec. 1915.

The Brussels Exposition in Belgium, 23 April to 14 Nov. 1910, drew 13,000,000 people;

661

the Turin Exposition, 30 April to 31 Oct. 1911, celebrated the 50th anniversary of Italy as a kingdom. See FAIRS AND SHOWS.

EXPOSITION OF ORACLES OF THE LORD by Papias of Hierapolis, an important Greek work in five books to which the date 145-60 is assigned. It is described by Lightfoot as "among the earliest forerunners of commentaries, partly explanatory, partly illustrative, on portions of the New Testament," and is a connecting link between the Apostolic and the Apologetic ages, explaining the less understood of Christ's sayings in the light of definite Apostolic traditions concerning them. No complete copy of the work has been discovered, but it is known through the excerpts quoted by the early Christian Fathers Irenæus and Eusebius. See PAPIAS.

EXPOSITION OF THE SACRAMENT, in the Roman Catholic ritual, the public showing of the Blessed Sacrament, accompanied with certain ceremonies, for the veneration of the faithful. Until the 16th century the practice was not general, taking place only on the feast of Corpus Christi, but within the last 300 years the practice has become general. Formerly permission of the bishop was required for an exposition. The 40-hour adoration is now a common practice in the larger_Catholic centres even in the United States. The ceremony is begun and ended with a mass. Consult Maier, 'Die liturgische Behandlung des Allerheiligsten ausser dem Opfer der heiligen Messe' (Ratisbon 1860) and Raible, Der Tabernakel einst und jetzt (Freiburg 1908).

EXPRESS SERVICE. A transportation system for parcels which require a safer and quicker delivery than can be had through the common freight service.

The creation and development of express service in the United States and the extension of the American express system, under American control, throughout the length and breadth of the civilized world and beyond, affords convincing proof of unique constructive and administrative genius along the lines of greatest utility to mankind.

One of the most prominent, succesful and progressive express companies, now operating on every continent, began some 70 years ago with a simple service for delivery of packages between a few Eastern and Western points. To-day, the same organization has, in addition to traffic in the United States, British North America and the Latin-American republics, at least a dozen agencies with commodious quarters on leading thoroughfares in principal European cities, each fully equipped with men, wagons and horses for the most rapid and effective express service.

As part of its routine business, the company is in touch with 30 of the world's largest banking institutions and has shipping and banking correspondents at all large cities and ports in both hemispheres. As a means of comparsion with express conditions of half a century ago, when the system was merely an adjunct to the railroads, a brief outline of the work now being carried on in progressive express companies will be of interest. Since the express plan first began, in 1838, the relations of the railroads toward the express companies have, by mutual consent and to meet ever

growing demands, been reversed. The railroads, in their own interests, so far as carriage of express freight is concerned, are now adjuncts of the express companies.

The most modern American express service, when conducted on a large scale, is conducted under five divisions: (1) The transportation of merchandise; (2) transfer of money, precious stones and other valuables, securities, etc.; (3) purchasing and selling merchandise; (4) forwarding of imports and exports; (5) issuance of money orders, letters of credit, travelers' checks and the transmission of money by telegraph.

The "check system has been so perfected that travelers in foreign countries save time and avoid delay by their use, as they are promptly recognized and cheerfully cashed or accepted by the principal hotels, steamship and sleepingcar companies, by many railroad companies and by merchants, shopkeepers and others, in settlement of accounts. They are issued in the denominations $10, $20, $50, $100 and $200.

For those traveling in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central and South America, these checks afford the advantages of a secure and convenient means of carrying funds immediately available, combined with the avoidance of the risk of loss of money by fire or destruction and of annoyance of negotiating personal checks in places where such may be unacceptable. Being cashed by agents of the companies and by banks in all the principal cities and pleasure resorts of the United States, the Canadas, Mexico, Cuba, Central and South America, accepted in payment of fares by the principal steamship companies and many railroad companies throughout the United States and received as cash by agents and conductors of the Pullman Palace Car Company and by many hotels in settlement of account, travelers' checks are found to be a most satisfactory form of credit for use during a tour.

"Letters of Credit" now form a usual express office specialty. These documents are drawn in sterling and are available in all parts of the world. Through the Letters of Credit system, checks may be obtained from express agencies at all important points. Every foreign express correspondent has a cable address, also every express agency.

The "C. O. D." system and bank of account collection are among the useful developments of express service. "C. O. D." shipments are subject to collection of bill or invoice for the goods, with prompt return of proceeds made at a small charge for such service. C. O. D. shipments to foreign countries are usually made under the same system as applies to domestic points.

Several of the big express companies attend to the collection of accounts, bills, notes, drafts, etc., in any part of the commercial world. Collections in United States and Canada are effected with unusual promptness and at less risk and cost to payee than by other methods. Collections in foreign countries of drafts or deposits, or by powers of attorney, are undertaken by express companies through their own organizations in Europe or through banking correspondents. The proceeds of C. O. D.'s or collections are transferred by cable when patrons desire, with a charge for collecting, plus only the cost of cablegrams.

The transfer of money is another useful and much appreciated feature of express service. Purchases are made and commissions executed for patrons, in the quickest possible time, at places in United States, Canada and Europe, by a special department. Besides attending to orders for the purchase or sale of goods and property, including household supplies, this department pays tax bills, redeems articles pawned, collects baggage at railroad stations, secures seats at theatres, berths on sleeping cars, staterooms on steamboats, baggage and staterooms on European steamers. Rare goods or books or articles requiring exact matching, or the maker or seller of which is unknown, are obtained without annoyance or loss of time to patrons.

Imports and exports of every class and size are handled by express companies as a part of their regular business. Bills of lading, bills of exchange and all other documents of that character are prepared and attended to from first to last.

Money orders and drafts are issued by several express companies for any amount, at the posted rate of exchange, in sterling, francs, lire, lei, marks, kroner, rubles, kronen, gulden, finmarks, Turkish pounds, Mexican dollars, local dollars, pesos, rupees, yen and United States dollars on all parts of the commercial world.

The regular transportation service of express companies includes merchandise, parcels, produce, money, bonds, valuables and baggage. The routes extend over 250,000 miles of railroads in the United States alone. Shipments are frequently made in through express cars with burglar and fire-proof safes for valuables and iron express trunks for parcels, all in charge of special armed messengers. The swiftest trains are almost invariably used for express service. The aim of the companies is to cover the ground in the least time at the lowest rates. They accept entire responsibility for loss or damage. Some express companies run special express trains to facilitate business during very busy seasons. Other companies have this feature as a permanent arrange

ment.

Novel and highly useful features of the most modern express service are the securing of ocean passages, European railroad tickets and passports for patrons at a nominal charge. It is only necessary for those who desire to utilize express companies in this way to state their wishes the companies do the rest rapidly, perfectly and inexpensively.

So much for the work-scope of express companies to-day as compared with that of earlier periods. Before reviewing briefly the evolutionary processes connected with express service developments it may be well to mention what has been brought about through the use of express enterprise and by such methods as are peculiar to the service.

1. The creation of wagon service, and, in connection with this, special cars and trains for transportation of express matter at high speed.

2. The creation of transportation business for carriage to and from all advantageous producing points of game, poultry, fish, oysters and fruit to localities where these commodities are not easily obtainable.

3. The creation of a novel method of selling goods for merchants by collecting on delivery

the amount of invoice and returning cash to the shipper.

4. The creation of a method of collecting the proceeds of negotiable paper and assuming, for the time being, responsibility of endorsers.

5. The creation of an efficient means of safe transportation of moneys and valuables shipped by individual citizens and by firms, banks, railroads and the government. As much as $4,000,000,000 have been shipped in the United States through the express companies in a single year in this manner.

6. The creation of a vast and perfect network of money-order agencies. The present number of these agencies is estimated at 40,000.

7. The creation of improved facilities for immediate transportation of foreign goods from ports of entry to destination. Heavy bonds are demanded by the government and given for proper execution of this service.

Commonly, the express company owns its terminal facilities, and rents from the railroads the cars on which its traffic is carried. These cars are usually attached to the regular passenger trains, and the employees of the express company accompany the shipments, and attend to the delivery to local agents along the route. The contract with the railroad company secures to the express company exclusive rights to operate over that line. For the privileges conveyed the railroad company receives from 45 to 55 per cent of the gross collections on the merchandise traffic. In some instances, however, the share of the railroad reaches 60 per cent, and even 70 per cent, and in a few exceptional cases all of the express earnings in excess of the actual expenses are paid to the railroad.

Under the law the express company is a common carrier, and its rates are under the supervision and control of the Interstate Commerce Commission as well as under the jurisdiction of State Railway Commissions in most of the States. For the purpose of fixing rates the Interstate Commerce Commission has divided the area of the United States into five great zones: (1) The country lying east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River: in this zone the minimum rate per 100 pounds has been fixed at 60 cents. (2) The country lying south of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi, together with a small section west of this river: in this zone the minimum rate per 100 pounds is 65 cents. (3) The transMississippi country extending to the intermountain section: in this zone the minimum rate per 100 pounds is 70 cents. (4) The intermountain country in this zone the minimum rate per 100 pounds is $1.05. (5) The Pacific Coast States, in which the minimum rate per 100 pounds is 70 cents. The whole territory is divided into 950 "blocks" having a uniform length of 69 miles, and widths which vary from 45 miles along the northern border to 62 miles along the southern border; in about 100 of these blocks there are no express offices. The blocks are subdivided into "squares" or sub-blocks. The blocks are designated by numbers running in series from right to left across the map, the northernmost row beginning with 101, the next row toward the south beginning with 201, the next southerly row beginning with 301, and so Transportation is then designated as from 403F (Portland, Oregon) to 952A (New York, N. Y.).

on.

Express charges are based on a classification into three divisions: (1) ordinary merchandise; (2) specials; and (3) what is commonly called "Section D"-newspapers, books, printed matter, seeds and scions, etc. Bulky and fragile merchandise is charged multiples of the firstclass rates; as, for example, carriages at six times first-class, and racing shells or airships at eight times the first-class rates. As is the case with freight traffic on railroads there has been established by the express companies a schedule of "commodity rates" which allows the transportation of merchandise of relatively low value at a reduction from the regular rates (which would be prohibitive) — a lower class rate on carload lots, or a first-class rate on goods which would regularly take several times that rate. On the regular tariff the limit of liability on the part of the express company is $50 on a shipment not exceeding 100 pounds in weight. If the property shipped is valued at more than this figure the rate is higher, and the higher rate must be paid to secure the full value of the package in case of loss or damage. The express company is liable only to the extent of the valuation declared by the shipper, and when the full charges have been paid or charged on that valuation.

Origin and Evolution of the Express Idea. The "Express» idea sprang from the system of sending parcels in care of coach-drivers, by stage-coach, and from the shipping of such parcels in care of captains, by coasting vessels.

When the railroads took the place, gradually, of the coaches, much parcel traffic was performed by means of the steam cars. Then the conductors of these cars had to assume responsibility for safe-keeping. Eventually, this transfer overcrowded them with work. A division of duties naturally followed. Finally, the railroads insisted that their employees should choose between railroad and the supplemental delivery traffic.

The principal events following this decision

were:

1838-39. The starting of an express company to operate in New England. Alvin Adams, who later began business for himself in New York, was with this company.

1839. "Harnden's Express" started between New York and Boston,

1840. "Adams' Express" began operations between the same points.

1840-45. Other expresses opened up business, extending service to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Chicago, Cincinnati, Louisville, Saint Louis and New Orleans.

The men most active in the new field at this time were William F. Harnden, William B. Dunsmore, Henry Wells, Edward P. Sanford, Samuel M. Shoemaker, Johnston Livingston, and William G. Fargo.

Almost all of the western transportation was carried on over the Ohio, Mississippi and Missouri rivers, with their tributaries, which included canals then recently completed in several of the States to connect those rivers with the lakes.

From 1840 the construction of railroads continued uninterruptedly, express business expanding in proportion. Then came the inauguration of express "continuous lines," enabling

goods to be carried quickly between many points without transfers.

At this period people sent their letters by express as being safer than the government's mail service. In course of time the authorities at Washington protested, and finally prohibited by law the private conveyance, without United States contract, of private letters.

1848. The stampede of gold-seekers, 184849, to California, brought out a great extension of the express system. Money and gold-dust were transmitted direct from the coast to eastern points through the express companies, many new agencies being established for the purpose.

1854. In this year a consolidation of express interests took place. "Adams & Co." bought up Harnden's business and worked several minor Eastern routes and secured the right to much Southern traffic.

During the same year the "American Express Co." first established in 1841 was formally organized, to operate from the East to the Far West.

The "United States" express also came into existence in 1854 to operate along the New York and Erie Railroad and the route running westward.

1854-55. About this time "Wells, Fargo & Co." were organized. They started the famous "Pony Express" and several stage lines. Other firms competed in these special forms of rapid transportation.

1855. The "National" Express Company began operations in this year, with routes between New York, Albany, Troy, Saratoga, Whitehall, Rutland and Montreal.

1858. Wells, Fargo and Company and the Pony Express lines organized the "Overland Mail Co., which, until the completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, carried the whole of the United States mails between the Missouri River and the Pacific Coast. By this time the express had become a recognized necessity in the commercial and individual transactions of the country. Its lines had amplified in every direction. It had attracted to itself sufficient capital to place it on a firm financial basis. Obligations to ensure the safe and speedy transmission of merchandise, valuables and money were readily assumed. When loss or damage occurred, due reparation was promptly made. Thieves were and are, to-day, followed up by them until caught and punished.

1861. Henry S. Plant and associates organized the "Southern Express Co.," which operated principally in the Southern States.

1861-65. Upon the breaking cut of hostilities, the express was the only means of communication between soldiers in the field and their friends at home. Government securities, being purchased largely by the people, were sent by government through the express, it being officially recognized that, during that critical period, the express was much safer than the official mail service.

After the war a contract was made by the United States government with the Adams Express Company, acting for itself and other companies, to transmit all securities and moneys of the government by express.

1865-1918. This period represents a phenomenal growth of the express movement. The present organization of the great companies, each with experience of over half a century to

guide it, is practically perfect in its workings, and labors continuously at high tension to keep even pace with calls which increase day by day.

The establishment of the parcel post in 1913 and its subsequent extension to larger packages had marked effect on the business of the express companies. A scaling down of rates by the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1914 seemed likely to affect the financial condition of the companies. The United States Express Company retired from business on 30 June 1914. But the later years have witnessed but little diminution of the bulk of the traffic and the profits. For valuable packages and for promptness in transmission and delivery the express company is an unequalled public utility.

The first statistics of the express business were gathered in 1890. In that year 18 companies were operating over routes which aggregated 174,060 miles. At the close of the fiscal year which ended 30 June 1916, the general business was in the hands of eight companies operating over a total of 297,139 iniles: of this, 253,750 miles were on steam railroads, and 43,389 miles on other routes - electric railways, steamboats and stage routes. The mileage served was divided among the companies as follows: Wells, Fargo and Company. 107,529 miles; American, 74,280 miles; Adams, 45,153 miles; Southern, 34,765 miles; Canadian, 12,050 miles; Great Northern, 9,838 miles; Northern, 6,275 miles; and Western, 5,249 miles. The combined revenues of all the companies for the fiscal year were $173,709,411, of which sum $172,655,204 was from the ordinary domestic express transportation business. Out of these revenues the express companies paid for exclusive privileges and transportation of merchandise to the carrying companies, $87,971,137, leaving their net revenues at $85.971,136. To this was added an income of $5,497,238 from the money-order and similar non-transportation business. Out of the net revenues, $68,020,529 was paid out in expenses, and $4,527,474 for maintenance. Taxes amounted to $1,548,761, and the total net profit on the year's business was $10,560,650.

The largest carrying_business was done by the American Express Company, amounting to $57,039,124; Wells, Fargo and Company were second, with $45,366,216; and Adams Express Company third, with $42,018,735. The largest net profit was made by the Southern Express Company, 9.5 per cent on the year's business; as compared with 6.3 per cent by Wells, Fargo and Company; 5.8 per cent by the American Express Company; and 5 per cent by Adams Express Company.

The latest available official statistics as to the capital, property and equipment of express companies in the United States are those for the fiscal year ended 30 June 1914. In that year the combined working capital of all the large companies amounted to $186.815,717, of which sum $75,760,300 was stock. The real estate owned was valued at $16,446,269, and the equipment at $17,547,845: the latter sum included 155 railroad cars valued at $603.787. The number of money orders, travelers' checks, letters of credit, telegraphic transfers of money, etc., was 24,209.695, representing the aggregate sum of $537,099,796.

Consult Chandler, W. C., The Express Service and Rates) (Chicago 1914); Interstate

Commerce Commission, Document 4198, 'Express Rates, Practices, Accounts and Revenues' (Washington 1913); and the annual reports of that commission.

EXPRESSED OILS, in chemistry, oils obtainable from bodies by pressing, to distinguish them from mineral and essential oils, which last are obtained by distillation.

EXPRESSION. Our mental states, and particularly our emotions, are closely linked with certain muscular and physiological associates, which are exhibited in perhaps the greatest detail and variety by the muscles and blood vessels of the face. These associates are denominated expressions; they include not only the visible muscular and vascular phenomena which have already been indicated, but also a vast number of more or less obscure respiratory, circulatory and secretory changes. These changes and movements are at times striking in their apparent inutility, so that much labor has been spent in the effort to elucidate their reason for being. The first explanation of the expressions which possess much interest at the present day is that of Darwin. In accordance with his evolutionism, he regards many emotional expressions as rudiments of actions which have been useful to the animal either in its individual history or in the history of the race. An acquired example of this sort is the pointing of the pointer dog. Other expressions are held to be the result of tendencies opposing those which would be called into play by the opposing emotion. A dog approaching its master playfully will evince in its relaxed muscles, in its bent back, in its flexed limbs, in its wagging tail and ears laid back, actions 'exactly the opposite of the tense sinews, the straight back and forward pointed head, the rigid extended limbs, the uplifted tail and ears which betoken its desire to attack another dog and serve to frighten its antagonist or to facilitate its attack. The third factor in the production of emotional expression, according to Darwin, is the direct overflow of the excited nervous system into motor channels, as in the case of trembling from fear.

Wundt retains Darwin's third principle of expression, but replaces the other two by the principle of association, which causes an experience to assume the physical correlates of related experience, and the principle of the connection of movement with sense-ideas, which includes all cases of movements which indicate or symbolise the object of the emotion or its desired result. The facial expression of dislike is an example of the former of these principles; it represents an attempt to eliminate a bitter-tasting substance from those parts of the mouth where it will be tasted most. Exemples of the second principle are the stare of surprise or the clenching of the fist in anger.

James retains Darwin's first principle that many expressions are rudimentary purposeful actions, and Darwin's third principle of nervous overflow. He adds to these what is equivalent to Wundt's principle of the association of analogous sensations, and two new explanations of expression. The first of these is that not only are formerly useful emotional expressions retained as rudiments, but that their physiological consequences and concomitants undergo a like atrophy and schematisation. Be

sides all these, there is a class of reactions susceptible to no very simple explanation. These have been perpetuated in a more or less mechanical manner, independently of their mode of origin. Perhaps the greater number of facial expressions belong to this class.

In accordance with the James-Lange theory of the emotions, which holds that they are constituted by their expressions, James maintains that there are distinct and different expressions of every emotion. This has been denied by Cannon, who has made perhaps the most thorough physiological investigation into the actual nature of emotional expression. He finds that all intense emotions are characterized by the increased secretion of adrenalin and the liberation of the carbohydrates stored in the liver. These reactions are directly serviceable to the individual in whom they happen (1) because they cause the blood to be driven from the abdominal viscera to the muscles, heart, brain and lungs, where it is more needed in any sudden action; (2) because they release an immediately available store of energy; (3) because they cause the heart to act more vigorously and more rapidly; (4) because they increase the clotting power of the blood and decrease hæmorrhage in case of injury. The milder emotions, on the other hand, are characterized by a directly antithetical physiological process, in which the normal action of the digestive system and other abdominal vicera is helped rather than hindered. The milder emotions are associated with a preponderant activity of the cerebro-spinal nervous system, while the violent ones belong rather to the sympathetic system. See EMOTION.

Bibliography.- Cannon, W. B., 'Bodily Change in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage' (New York 1915); Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals' (London 1873); James, W., 'Principles of Psychology' (New York 1890); Mantegazza, P., Physiognomy and Expression (3d ed., London 1904); Warner, F., Physical Expression' (New York 1886); Wundt, Grundzüge der Physiologischen Psychologie' (Leipzig 1911); Völkerpsychologie' (Leipzig 1900).

EXPULSION. Usually this word is used to describe the act of depriving one or more members of a political or corporate organization, or of a society. of their right of membership. The act is frequently brought about by a vote of the organization or society after the submission of a committee report, for some violation of duty or some other offense rendering such member or members, in the opinion of their associates, unfit or unworthy.

It is provided in the Constitution of the United States that the members of the Senate or House of Representatives may expel members of their respective bodies, by a two-thirds vote, for disorderly conduct.

Corporations have the right of expulsion in cases where good order and proper control make the exercise of such power essential as, for example, (1) when the offense is not within corporate duties, but nevertheless disgraceful or infamous, or (2) when the offense is against his duty as a corporation member or officer or director or (3) when the offense is of such a character as to infringe corporation rules and the statutes at the same time.