feature of the system, however, to which it owed its name, was the fact that manufacturing was carried on in his own house by the domestic worker, who usually also owned a plot of ground which he cultivated as a byindustry.

Factory System.-All this was entirely changed by the introduction of the factory system. The first series of changes that may be noted was the transfer of the industry from the home to the factory, the change in ownership of the implements of production from the artisan to the capitalist employer, and the change in the power that drove the machines from the muscles of the workers to the force of falling water, and later of expanding steam. A second characteristic of the factory system was the enlargement of the business unit. The textile industry was affected less than mining and the metallurgical industries; but transportation showed the greatest development along these lines. To-day, however, large-scale production is a common characteristic of almost all factory industries. As a result of these changes capital has become increasingly important in modern industry until our present system of industrial organization is often called a "capitalistic" system rather than a factory system.

Evils. It is obvious that no such farreaching change in industrial organization could be effected without serious disorganization and readjustment. The transitional period during which the factory system was instituted witnesses many serious evils, some of which have .not yet been altogether eradicated, and which are consequently assumed by some writers to be inherent in the system itself. To a brief consideration of these we may turn. Five criticisms were noted by C. D. Wright in an account of the system given in the Tenth Census, as follows:*

(a) The factory system necessitates the employment of women and children to an injurious extent, and consequently its tendency is to destroy family ties and domestic habits and ultimately the home.

(b) Factory employments are injurious to health.

(c) The factory system is productive of intemperance, unthrift and poverty.

(d) It feeds prostitution and swells the criminal lists.

(e) It tends to intellectual degeneracy. In answer to these criticisms it may be pointed out that the employment of women and especially of children has been regulated and greatly reduced by factory legislation. The employment of married women and of young children is, however, still unhappily too great. On the score of health the best equipped and managed factories undoubtedly compare very favorably with the environment under which work was carried on in the home under the domestic system, but the number of dangerous and injurious trades has multiplied. The resulting evils should, however, be cared for by legislation. The next two counts may be dismissed as untrue; the factory system as such cannot be held responsible for these evils and in fact works directly against such a vice as

*C. D. Wright. Report on the Factory System of the United States,' in Tenth Census, Vol. II, p. 552.

intemperance as inconsistent with efficiency. On the last point so eminent an authority as Prof. Alfred Marshall is of the opinion that the modern factory system makes higher demands upon the intellectual capacity of the workers than any system of industrial organization which has preceded it.

Advantages. On the other hand certain positive advantages of the factory system of industry may be noted. It makes possible a vastly greater output. That this is not more equitably distributed is indeed a serious problem of social justice, but the inequity of our present system of distribution should not be made an indictment against the system of production which gives us more to divide. It has, moreover, greatly lessened the cost of production and hence lowered the price of thousands of articles, which have thus been brought within reach of everyone. One has only to point for illustration to the myriads of articles produced under the factory system which can be found in the 5 and 10 cent stores. And finally wages, both nominal and real, have increased under this system, so that the economic position of the average factory operative is better than that of a similar worker under the domestic system. All in all, in spite of certain dark spots, the factory system may be regarded as a long step forward in the march of industrial progress. See HISTORY, MODERN.

Bibliography. Babbage, Charles, "The Economy of Manufactures' (London 1835); Clarke, Allen, The Effects of the Factory System (London 1894); Cooke-Taylor, R. W., 'Introduction to a History of the Factory System' (London 1886); Cooke-Taylor, R. W., 'The Modern Factory System' (London 1891); Hobson, J. A., The Evolution of Modern Capitalism (New York 1894); Ure, Andrew, 'The Philosophy of Manufactures' (London 1861); Wright, C. D., 'Report on the Factory System of the United States' (Tenth Census, Volume Manufactures, Washington 1884).

ERNEST L. BOGART, Professor of Economics, University of Illinois. FACULÆ, the brighter spots sometimes observed on the sun's disc. Generally they are small at first and gradually assume large proportions. See SUN.

FACULTIES, Court of, an English ecclesiastical court, under the archbishop, which creates rights to pews, monuments and particular places and modes of burial. and has also various powers in granting licenses of different descriptions, as a license to marry, a faculty to erect an organ in a parish church or to remove bodies previously buried.

FACULTY, in ecclesiastical law, a privilege or license granted to any person by favor, and not as a right to do any act which by law he may not do. In the Roman Catholic Church, permission granted by an ecclesiastical superior to a duly qualified subject to hear confessions. Such permission only extends to the district over which the superior has jurisdiction. Thus, faculties are granted by bishops to the priests in their dioceses, and by the heads of religious houses to such of their subjects as they judge qualified to hear the confessions of the community. In the United States, the term faculty indicates the body of persons who are entrusted with the government and instruction of a uni

versity or college as a whole, comprising the president, professors and tutors. It is also used for the body of masters and professors of each of the several departments of instruction in a university; as, the law faculty, etc.

FACULTY OF ADVOCATES, an incorporated society of Scottish jurists, with a membership of about 400. Practice in the higher courts of the kingdom is confined to members of the Faculty, who for admission are obliged to pass a special examination. Justices are appointed from the membership.

FADEYEV, fä-da'yěf, Rostislav Andreievitch, Russian military writer: b. 1824; d. Odessa, 12 Jan. 1884. He made more than one campaign in the Caucasus, achieving a reputation as a scientific soldier that commands respect for his 'Sixty Years of War in the Caucasus) (1860); Russian Military Power' (1868); My Opinions of the Oriental Problem' (1870); 'Letters on Russia's Present Position' (1881); and many similar writings.

LAND, a Russian island of the Arctic Ocean, in the province of Yakutsk. It is 100 miles long by about 40 broad. The climate is very cold the greater part of the year, but the island is inhabited.

FECES, the residue of food, combined with the intestinal secretions, as it passes from the body. After chyme has passed into the large intestine it is then termed fæces. During health fæces consist largely of the undigested portions of the food taken into the body. They contain microscopically many epithelial cells from different parts of the intestinal canal; shreds of mucus, bits of meat-fibre, the character of which depends upon the ingested food, and which can be determined by the microscope; vegetable detritus consisting largely of parenchymatous and vascular tissues, plant-hairs, etc.; fat-globules; bacteria of many kinds; bile pigments; and other organic residues. As the chemistry of the fæces will vary widely according to the diet, charts of chemical composition are worthless. The consistency of the fæces also widely varies. Normally, fæces should be semi-solid; if too hard, constipation is probable; if too soft and watery, indigestion, may be present, or some degree of colitis (q.v.). Large quantities of mucus indicate a colitis. The color of the fæces is of much importance in determining whether the normal functions of the intestine are being carried on. In health the fæces should vary from a light to an umber brown, white to yellow fæces indicating lack of bile-execretion or loss of fat-digestion. Very black fæces often result from excessive bileelimination, but such are more likely to be present when the drinking-water contains small amounts of mineral constituents, notably iron. Many drugs modify the color of the fæces. In children, green to greenish stools indicate either the presence of certain pigment-forming bacteria, or they mean that there is excessive fermentation or putrefaction of the intestinal contents, leading to excess of oxidation of the bile-pigments. In either case castor oil is an excellent corrective. Tarry fæces, resembling coffee-grounds in color, usually indicate the presence of blood high up in the intestinal canal. If bleeding occurs in the large intestine or rectum, red is the prevailing tinge. Small quanti

went to Edinburgh to study, soon won a considerable reputation as a portrait and subject painter, and was elected a member of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1852. In 1851 he exhibited a work entitled "The Cruel Sisters, and this was followed by The Cotter's Saturday Night' (1854); The Philosopher (1855); The Household Gods in Danger' (1856); Job and his Friends (1858); and 'Boaz and Ruth' (1860). Going to London in 1862, he began to exhibit in the Royal Academy also, some of his pictures shown since that date being Catherine Seyton (1864); Old Age' (1867); John Anderson, my Jo' (1869); After the Victory) (1873); The Morning before Flodden' (1874); (Blenheim (1875); In Memoriam' (1876); 'The Old Basket-Maker (1878); and The Poet's Dream (1883). His work invariably displays careful drawing, but his coloring is somewhat hard.

FAED, Thomas, Scottish artist: b. Burley Mill, Kirkcudbrightshire, 8 June 1826; d. London, 17 Aug. 1900. He was a brother of John Faed (q.v.), and at an early age became known as a clever painter of rustic subjects. The subjects of his brush are for the most part domestic or pathetic, which he depicted with a tender idealism that appealed strongly to the public taste. He was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1864. Among his principal works are 'Sir Walter Scott and his Friends (1849); "The Mitherless Bairn (1855); The First Break in the Family' (1857); 'His Only Pair' (1860); From Dawn to Sunset' (1861); 'The Last o' the Clan) (1865); Pot Luck' (1866); Worn Out' (1868); Homeless' (1869); (The Highland Mother (1870); (Winter) (1872); 'Violets and Primroses' (1874); She Never Told her Love' (1876); Maggie and her Friends' (1878); and Rest by the Stile' (in the Metropolitan Museum, New York).

FAENZA, fä-en'zä (ancient FAVENTIA), Italy, episcopal city, in the province of Ravenna, on the river Lamone, 19 miles from the city of Ravenna. The cathedral of San Costanzo, begun in the 14th century, contains the exquisite early Renaissance tomb of Saint Savinus. It is noted for its glazed earthenware, called Faience (q.v.), the manufacture of which was famous from the 15th century and has been recently

of England is the source of England's present greatness. He distinguishes carefully between fairy knights like Guyon and English knights like Saint George (Red Cross). The Queen of the Fairies appears to Prince Arthur in a vision of a type familiar in Celtic folklore, and promises in due time to give herself to him; England, personified in Arthur, seeks to realize this vision, made complete when Elizabeth rules. Thus the poem glorifies the ancestry of the reigning house according to the rules of Renaissance epic.

But there is yet more. Artegal, knight of Justice, loves Britomart, the martial spirit of England. Justice united with British might points out a new destiny. Artegal's quest is to free Irena (Ireland) from Grantorto (Philip of Spain). In this book also Prince Arthur rescues Belga (the Netherlands) from the Spanish monster, and Duessa (Mary of Scotland) is adjudged worthy of death. Thus certain crucial events in Elizabeth's reign are set forth the conflict with Spain necessitated the crushing of the Irish rebellion, fomented by Philip; it necessitated also the aid sent to the Netherlands, crushed by Philip's vast cruelty, and the execution of Mary, the chief means through which Philip plotted the destruction of free England. In a later book, Spenser no doubt would have included the final triumph over the Armada. Furthermore, this exposition has a direct bearing on the foreign policy of Elizabeth and is a defense of that school of politics that held it to be England's duty to emerge from isolation, to take part in continental politics, to substitute for diplomatic intrigue positive action on behalf of the oppressed in the Low Countries and in France against the sinister shadow of Philip's ambition for world power. The poem is not merely a moral allegory of abstract virtues, not merely a glorification of the Queen, but a positive and almost defiant defense of a greater nationalism that led eventually to the establishment of British sea power and the imperial domain. Raleigh, "the Shepherd of the Ocean," is recognized by Spenser as a leader in this progressive movement, as he also recognized Leicester and Essex and opposed the more conservative policy of Lord Burghley.

Besides these allegories of moral and political ideas, which appealed to Elizabethan love of symbolism and shadowed forth the romantic idealism of the time, are many lovely features that deepen the picture. Such are Calidore's wooing of the shepherdess Pastorella, as charming as the pastoral scenes in Shakespeare's Winter's Tale'; or the flight of Britomart with her nurse to Merlin's cave, there to learn of Artegal; or the stories of Florimel and of Amoret. These stories, and many other strands in the complex web of Spenser's weaving, are of the very essence of romance - the light that never was on sea or land that Wordsworth meditated upon, or the faery lands forlorn recalled to momentary life in the poetry of Keats. In this is one secret of Spenser's influence upon later English poetry, an influence more pervasive than Chaucer's or Milton's or even Shakespeare's. It is not that he is a master of narrative: one who desires merely a story had best go elsewhere. It is not that he recreates the world of chivalry as Malory or Chrétien had seen it in earlier times. He

draws upon all sources; ancient and mediæval, romance and allegory; his learning is enormous; one stanza may be compounded of samples from many fields. But it is all fused, through the magic of his imagination, into a new unity that we feel rather than see. His sources are a thousand romances, but he is romance incarnate.

Partly this is due to his wonderful stanza. The foundation of it is not ottava rima, as is often said, but an eight-line stanza adapted by Chaucer from the French and having the same rhymes ababbcbc. To this Spenser added an alexandrine that repeats the third rhyme. Singularly adapted to the genius of one who has been called "the painter of the poets," Spenser gets from it an astonishing variety of effects through his mastery of alliteration, vowel stress, repetition, and epithet. The music of bird song and running water is in it, the opulence of taste and touch ("He seems to feel with his eyes") the pictures in language that the poets of the Renaissance sought to paint. These pictures are not alone of the kind often associated with his poem,- -an enchantress in a Bower of Bliss, or some vividly wrought epic simile. Colin's fairy hill, a stream of living water at its base, guarded by fairies from every noisome thing; a little open place outside the stream, and beyond, as a frame for the picture, woods of matchless height that seemed to disdain the earth, is one example of his painting; another is the scene of the hundred furnaces in the Underworld, surrounded by swarms of dwarfs engaged in stirring the molten ore with great ladles, with the sudden apparition of the Fairy Knight, "glistering in armes and battailous array.»

Though Spenser's genius is not primarily dramatic, this element in his work is not wanting. He often refers to the theatres and to acting, and among his lost works we read of nine comedies. The masques of the "Faerie Queene" the Temple of Venus, the Masque of Cupid, the Gardens of Adonis, the Seven Deadly Sins, the Masque of the Seasons, and others form a constant element in his work. The journey of Guyon through the Underworld is both masque and drama, as is also the overthrow of the enchanter Busirane by Britomart. In comparison with these, the masques introduced by Shakespeare into his plays are pale and ineffectual. The tragi-comedy of Malbecco is excellent throughout, and reminds one, in its power of characterization and its edged humor, of Jonson or Massinger. Spenser's characters not all pale abstractions, creatures of boundless virtue or ugly vice. Britomart has the spirit, the bravery, as well as the beauty of Beatrice, and like Beatrice she is adorably feminine. Una is as lovely and appealing as Hermione; Pastorella is another Perdita. Guyon's career is no succession of tilts with abstractions; the conflict is as real as in many an Elizabethan tragedy, with victory for his reward.

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But these are mere details, their only service being to recall once more the infinite variety of the elements composing the poem. The abiding impression which it leaves upon the mind is that of a succession of marvelous dissolving views, a panorama in which the antique and mediæval worlds are blended with the epiclike life that England then was living. This