students. Australia in addition provides expert personnel, machinery and equipment. Expert personnel are also supplied by the United Kingdom. The New Zealand Volunteer Service Abroad and the United States Peace Corps have a number of volunteers serving in Western Samoa.

THE SOCIAL SERVICES

Samoa is fortunate in that most of the worst tropical diseases are unknown in the islands. There is a Department of Health and there are fourteen health districts with Medical Officers responsible for health activities in each district. The Apia General Hospital, with 310 beds, is the main hospital in the country. There are programmes for assisting in tuberculosis control, filariasis and yaws. The cost of health services in the country was WS $700,615 in 1969.

Samoa participates in the South Pacific Health Service, a regional organisation with its headquarters and Director-General at Suva in Fiji; through this the country is involved in the regional planning in the area. For both training and treatment the universities and teaching hospitals in New Zealand play an important role for the whole region.

Education in Western Samoa is a Government responsibility carried out through a Department of Education, but several missions also operate schools. The education system is divided into three divisions; primary, intermediate and secondary, and all are based on the New Zealand system. In 1966 there were 159 primary, 39 intermediate and 15 secondary schools in the country with a total school population of over 34,000. There are also a Trades' Training Institute, Teachers' Training College and a college for tropical agriculture in Western Samoa. Western Samoa has joined other Governments in the area in establishing the regional University of the South Pacific and a Samoan is currently serving as pro-Chancellor.

Labour matters in Western Samoa are governed by a Labour Ordinance and Workers' Compensation Act passed in 1960. There are probably 10,000 people in the country who could be classed as wage earners and at least half of them are employed by the Government or the Trust Estates Corporation. It is calculated that another 17,000 are employed in village agriculture. There are no trade unions and the Government works on the basis of a 40 hours' week which is generally followed by private enterprise. There is a substantial annual migration to New Zealand. Some thousands have migrated in this way on a permanent or semi-permanent basis.

HISTORY

Little is known of Samoan history before the 13th century but some archaeological evidence indicates that Samoa could have been settled as far back as 1000 B.C. After 1250, genealogies of important titles, legends and charts provide a reasonably clear outline of the main events of Samoa's political history. Fijian nobles feature in many Samoan legends, indicating connection with and knowledge of Fijian peoples and customs. This applies also to the Tongans. Throughout this early period there was intermittent contact both friendly and hostile between the three groups of islands.

The first European contact with Samoa came in 1722 with a visit by the Dutch navigator, Jacob Roggeveen. In 1830, the missionary John Williams, landed in Savai'i and Samoan society has been in contact with the Western world from that

time onwards. But it has largely retained its traditional organisation, modifying and adapting intrusive elements to suit its needs.

Towards the end of the 19th century, Germany, Britain and America obtained privileges in Western Samoa for themselves and their nationals. Rivalry between these three powers reached a climax in 1889 when a special commission was set up to solve the three-way power struggle. This Commission divided the group between Germany and the USA: Germany taking Savai'i, Upolu and the adjacent smaller islands (Western Samoa) and America taking Tutuila and adjacent small islands (American Samoa). Britain, having rights in other Pacific Islands, withdrew. Germany administered Western Samoa until 1914 when New Zealand military forces occupied it. In 1919, New Zealand was granted a League of Nations Mandate for Samoa. Shortly after the end of the Pacific War in 1946, Western Samoa was made a UN Trust Territory with New Zealand as the administering power. The Samoan people requested independence but were not granted it at that stage.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

From 1947 to 1961 there was a series of constitutional advances which brought Samoa from a dependent status to self-government and independence. In 1947 a Legislative Assembly was established. In March 1953, New Zealand proposed to quicken the pace of political and economic development and in 1954 a Constitutional Convention, representing all sections of Samoan society, met to study proposals for political development. Its recommendations were in the main adopted by the New Zealand Government and these set the pattern for evolution towards constitutional government. From this time members of the Legislative Assembly assumed an increasingly greater role in the conduct of Government affairs culminating in the appointment of the Hon. E. F. Paul as Leader of Government business in 1959. In January 1959, a Working Committee on selfgovernment was established and empowered to work out a draft constitution. Cabinet Government was inaugurated in October 1959 and the Honourable Fiame Mata'afa became the first Prime Minister. In August 1960, a Constitutional Convention met and formally adopted the Constitution. This was an instrument combining the cherished elements of traditional Samoan society and the needs of a modern state. A plebiscite was held in May 1961 under the auspices of the United Nations and an overwhelming majority of the Samoan people voted for independence on the basis of the Constitution. In October 1961, the UN General Assembly at the request of New Zealand and on the claim of Western Samoa to independence, voted unanimously to end the Trusteeship Agreement. The New Zealand Parliament then passed the Independence (State of Western Samoa) Act, formally ending New Zealand's powers over the country.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Western Samoa is an independent and sovereign state; under a Treaty of Friendship between Western Samoa and New Zealand signed eight months after Western Samoa became independent, New Zealand agreed to assist in the independent state's foreign relations ‘in such a manner as will in no way impair the rights of the Government of Western Samoa to formulate its own foreign policies'. In other words, the New Zealand Government merely acts as the agent of the Western Samoan Government when requested to do so. Western Samoa has

chosen not to seek admission to the UN but has nevertheless joined ECAFE, WHO, ADB and the South Pacific Commission. Following consultation with Commonwealth governments, it was agreed that pending a decision by the Western Samoan Government on whether to seek membership, Western Samoa would be treated for most purposes as if it were a member of the Commonwealth. The Western Samoan Government decided in 1970 to seek membership and following consultations with Commonwealth Governments became a full member of the Commonwealth in August 1970.

THE GOVERNMENT

Western Samoa has a strong, stable and democratic, system of parliamentary government which is a blend of Polynesian and British practices. The Constitution which came into force on 1 January 1962, provides for a Head of State to be elected by the Legislative Assembly for a term of five years. In the first instance, however, it was decided that two of the four Paramount chiefs should jointly hold the office of Head of State for life. On 5 April 1963, one of the Paramount Chiefs died and in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, Malietoa Tanumafili II became the holder of the office of Head of State for life. The Head of State whose functions are analogous to those of a constitutional monarch, appoints the Prime Minister who has support of a majority of the elected members of the Assembly and is himself an elected member. Executive government is carried out by the Cabinet consisting of a Prime Minister and eight other Ministers, selected by the Prime Minister. All legislation passed by the Legislative Assembly must have the assent of the Head of State before it becomes law. The Head of State also has other powers such as the granting of pardons and reprieves or suspending sentences.

The Legislative Assembly is composed of the Speaker and forty-six members. Forty-five members of Parliament are elected in the traditional Samoan manner by holders of matai titles of whom there are about 9,500 on the rolls. Two members represent those of the population who are registered on the individual voters' roll. Election of these two members is by universal adult suffrage.

General elections are held every three years, the last being held on 25 February 1970. Only Western Samoan citizens may stand for elections or vote in them. The Parliament elected in 1970 selected Tupua Tamasese Lealofi IV as Prime Minister and he was duly appointed Western Samoa's second Prime Minister since independence in 1962.

There are no formally established political parties and as a consequence parliamentary candidates generally campaign as individual candidates. The voting system allows the Samoan social structure to function in the traditional manner. This structure has as its basis the ‘aiga' (extended family) unit headed by a matai who speaks for the entire 'aiga'. The plebiscite on the Constitution held in May 1961 resulted in clear acceptance of matai suffrage.

The Constitution also provides for a Council of Deputies to consist of not more than three persons. The function of the Council is to act in place of the Head of State if a vacancy exists in that office or the holder of that office is incapacitated or absent from the country.

Local government is based on the matai system through meetings of family heads in the village.

The Constitution provides for a Public Service Commission which determines salaries and other conditions of service in the Western Samoan Public Service. In

1966 there were 2,289 public servants. A small number of positions is currently filled by officers on contract from New Zealand and elsewhere and by United Nations personnel.

The Constitution provides for a Supreme Court of Western Samoa. The Supreme Court is a superior court of record and has full jurisdiction-civil, criminal and constitutional. The Chief Justice is appointed under the Constitution by the Head of State, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister. There is also a Court of Appeal in Western Samoa. Disputes relating to customary land and matai titles are settled in the Land and Titles Court which bases its decision on custom and tradition.

Z

ZAMBIA

AMBIA lies between latitudes 8° and 18° S., and longitudes 22° and 34° E. The country is land-locked and its neighbours are Angola on the west, South-West Africa (via the Caprivi Strip), the Republic of Botswana and Rhodesia on the south, Mozambique and Malawi on the south-east and east, the United Republic of Tanzania on the north-east and the Congo on the north and north-west. The name Zambia is derived from Zambesi, the river which flows through the country and provides the boundary with Rhodesia.

The area of Zambia is 290,600 square miles, which is well over five times the size of England. It consists mostly of a high plateau from 3,500 to 4,500 feet above sea level except where occasional mountains rise to over 7,000 feet, or where the plateau is deeply entrenched by the Zambesi River and its tributaries, the Kafue and the Luangwa Rivers, or by the Luapula River, which forms part of the headwaters of the River Congo, in the north-west. The Mafinga Mountains, the highest in the country, form part of the great escarpment running down the eastern edge of the Luangwa River valley, with peaks rising to just over 7,000 feet. There are three great lakes: Lake Mweru on the northern boundary with the Congo; Lake Tanganyika on the north-western boundary with Tanganyika; Lake Bangweulu and its swamps, in the northern district, covering an area of approximately 3,800 square miles. Along the southern border stretches Lake Kariba, at present the world's largest man-made lake.

There are three seasons: a cool dry season from May to August, a hot dry season from September to November, and a wet season from December to April. In the hot season day temperatures may vary from 27-38°C (80-100°F), but at night there is a very distinct drop in the temperature and at times frost occurs in some areas. The rainfall range is 30-50 inches a year.

The last official census of the African population was held in 1969 when they numbered 4,054,000 (as compared to 3,490,000 on 30th June 1963). Of this approximately 70,000 are Europeans and 12,300 are Asians. There are 73 tribes of which the largest are: Bemba, Ngoni, Chewa, Bisa, Lozi, Tonga, Luvale, Lenje, Ila, Senga, Lala, Lunda. English is widely spoken throughout the territory and is the official language. There are six main vernacular languages, viz., Nyanja, Bemba, Tonga, Lozi, Lunda and Luvale. Primary education is free and is not yet universal. About 85 per cent of the children in the age groups concerned attend primary school, and of these, about 25 per cent to 30 per cent go on to take the five-year course in secondary schools. The University of Zambia was established in 1965 and the first students were admitted in March 1966. In 1968

there were 948 students. Christianity is the main religion.

For administrative purposes, Zambia is divided into eight provinces, Central, Copperbelt, Eastern, Luapula, Northern, North-Western, Southern and Western. The populations of Lusaka, the capital, and other main centres in 1969 were as follows:

Zambia Railways was established in 1967 and took over the former North West Region of Rhodesia Railways. The gauge is three feet six inches, and the main line runs from Livingstone via Lusaka to the Copperbelt where it links with the B.C.K. (Congo). The main roads from Livingstone and Salisbury to Lusaka and on to the Copperbelt are tarmac. The Great East Road to Malawi, and the Great North Road to Tanzania are now also tarmaced. The principal airports are at Lusaka, Ndola and Livingstone, with runway lengths of 13,000, 8,250, and 7,500 feet respectively. In addition there are 12 secondary airports, 31 minor airports and 34 privately owned and operated airstrips. The main airlines are Zambia Airways (operated by Alitalia), East African Airways and BOAC. The Zambia Broadcasting Services and Zambia Television are government-run; Zambia Television covers Lusaka and the Copperbelt.

Copper mining is the economic mainstay of Zambia, and in 1967 provided over 95 per cent of Zambia's export earnings, 56 per cent of Government revenue and 38 per cent of the gross domestic product. In 1968 a total of 654,975 tons of copper were produced, valued at K513.9 million. The total production of minerals was valued at K532-8 million, with production as follows:

The main crops are cassava, maize, tobacco and groundnuts. Small quantities of cotton, rice pulses, citrus, potatoes, tropical fruits, vegetables, wheat and beeswax are also produced.

For the twelve months ending 31st December 1969, Government revenue (ex. capital) is estimated at K296.0 million and recurrent expenditure at K279.5 million. In addition capital expenditure of K131-7 has been budgeted for. The National Day is 24th October, Independence Day.

* The £ Zambian did not follow the £ sterling, with which it was previously at par, into devaluation in November, 1967 but the Zambian currency was decimalised on 16 January 1968-the main unit, the Kwacha, is worth 11s. 7d sterling.