THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA

T

HE Commonwealth of Australia is situated in the Southern Hemisphere and lies between meridians of longitude 113° 9′ E. and 153° 39′ E. Its northern and southern limits are the parallels of latitude 10° 41′ S. and 43° 39' S. It is bounded on the west by the Indian Ocean and on the east by the Coral and Tasman Seas of the South Pacific Ocean, to the north by the Timor and Arafura Seas and to the south by the Indian Ocean. The name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning southern, a name commonly used in early times for regions south of the equator. In the sixteenth century geographers used the name 'Terra Australis' to describe a continent which they thought must exist in the South Pacific. The east coast of Australia was named New South Wales by Captain Cook but when it was realised that this and New Holland, the name by which the west coast was known, formed one land mass, the word Australia began to be used, and was first given official recognition in April 1817 when Governor Macquarie of New South Wales used the word in his correspondence. The Commonwealth of Australia comprises the six federated States of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania, each of which has its own Government, and two internal territories, the Australian Capital Territory, which is the seat of the Commonwealth Government, and the Northern Territory; both Territories are administered by the Commonwealth Government.

Australia's external territories, administered by the Commonwealth Government, are Ashmore and Cartier Islands (which are administered as part of the Northern Territory), Papua, Norfolk Island, the Australian Antarctic Territory, Heard Island and McDonald Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Christmas Island (in the Indian Ocean). Macquarie Island, the only other external Australian territory, is administered by Tasmania. The Commonwealth Government also administers the Trust Territory of New Guinea. (The external territories are dealt with in Part VI of this volume).

The total area of the Commonwealth is 2,967,909 square miles. Almost threequarters of the land mass is a vast ancient plateau, averaging about 1,000 feet above sea level. There is a large portion of lowland with an elevation of less than 500 feet which is, in one place, below sea level. A third division is the eastern highlands belt, featuring a chain of elevated plateaux extending from north to south along the eastern boundary. This highland is known as the Great Dividing Range. The dominating structural division—the Great Western Plateau—has a few high tablelands and ridges such as the Kimberleys Region, Hamersley, Macdonnell and Musgrave Ranges. The Hamersley Range contains Western Australia's highest peak, Mount Bruce (4,024) feet. The Northern Territory's highest point is Mount Zeil (4,950 feet) in the Macdonnell Ranges, and South Australia's highest is Mount Woodroffe (5,000 feet) in the Musgrave Ranges. Ayers Rock, 1,100 feet high, a huge monolith rising from the central Australian desert with a circumference of six miles, is sometimes referred to as the 'largest stone in the world'. The Great Dividing Range stretches from Cape York in Queensland to the southern seaboard of Tasmania, but despite the name the mountains of the Divide are relatively low. In the north and central sections they

rarely exceed 5,000 feet. The rugged south-eastern area, known as the Australian Alps, is higher with peaks of over 6,000 feet. This area contains some of Australia's highest land, together with its highest peak, Mount Kosciusko (7,316 feet). The Great Divide also provides the highest points in Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania. These peaks are respectively Mount Bartle Frere (5,287 feet); Mount Bogong (6,516 feet) and Mount Ossa (5,305 feet).

Australia does not possess any extensive inland river system. The greater part of the continent lies within the southern arid belt between latitudes 15° and 35° S. The largest river system is the Murray River and its tributaries which drain about 414,000 square miles, including a large part of southern Queensland, the major part of New South Wales and much of Victoria. The river rises in the Australian Alps and flows westward to form for 1,200 miles the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria. After flowing 400 miles through South Australia it discharges into the sea at Lake Alexandrina. With its tributaries (the Darling, the Murrumbidgee, the Lachlan and many smaller rivers in New South Wales, and the Goulburn, Ovens, Campaspe and other rivers in Victoria) the Murray has an estimated flow of some 12,500,000 acre feet annually. Most of the rivers of the central interior flow only after heavy rains, while the majority of Australia's coastal rivers are short with moderate rates of flow, although the monsoon season in the north of the country can augment the discharge rate enormously. Australia's largest reservoir is the man-made Lake Eucumbene in the Snowy Mountains area of New South Wales with a useful storage capacity of 3,890,000 acre feet. Other major reservoirs are Eildon Weir, Victoria, 2,750,000 acre feet; Hume Reservoir, N.S.W., 2,500,000 acre feet; Warragamba Dam, N.S.W., 1,670,000 acre feet; Menindee Lakes, N.S.W., 2,000,000 acre feet and Great Lake, Tasmania, 1,300,000 acre feet. Other large lakes include Lake Corangamite (Victoria) 80 square miles in area; Great Lake (Tasmania) and the Gippsland Lakes (Victoria). The largest lake in Australia is Lake Eyre which covers an area of about 4,000 square miles with neighbouring Lake Eyre South. However, this lake in central Australia is generally dry with its bed covered with salt. This is true of many of the lakes of inland Australia, which, although big in area, often contain no water except after infrequent rain. The four seasons in Australia are: Spring, September to November; Summer, December to February; Autumn, March to May; and Winter, June to August. In most parts January is the hottest month but in Tasmania and Southern Victoria February is hotter while in the tropical north (probably because of the cooling monsoon rains occurring in late summer) December is the hottest month. In northern Australia the year is divided into the usual tropical divisions of dry and wet seasons, with the wet season occurring in summer and the heaviest rain in January, February and March. On the coast, where rainfall is often abundant, the temperature extremes are limited by the moist atmosphere whereas in the dry inland areas the extremes extend in proportion to the distance from the seaboard. Central and southern Queensland are sub-tropical. Farther south there are the warm temperate regions of north and central New South Wales and the cooler areas of Victoria, south-west Western Australia and Tasmania, with rainfall distributed throughout the year and increasing in winter. Australia's coldest regions are the highlands and tablelands of Tasmania and the south-east corner of the mainland. Australia's regular winter snowfalls occur in the highlands of these areas. Mean maximum temperatures (Fahrenheit) of the various state capitals, showing the mean minimum in brackets, are: Sydney 70-4 (56.3); Brisbane 77-8 (59-8); Perth 73.6 (55·4);

Darwin 90-3 (74-1); Melbourne 67-4 (49.7); Adelaide 72-4 (53.2); Hobart 62-0 (46-5); and the Federal Capital, Canberra 66·7 (43·1). The heaviest rainfall occurs on the north coast of Queensland (up to 160 inches) and in western Tasmania (up to 140 inches). A vast area of the interior, however, stretching from the far west of New South Wales and south-west Queensland to the western seaboard of Western Australia has a rainfall below 10 inches a year. Between these regions of heavy and very low rainfall are the extensive areas which experience useful to good rains, ranging from 10 to 50 inches a year.

The flora and fauna of Australia include many groups which do not occur elsewhere. Vegetation is colourful and varied. Forests are relatively small in area and occur mainly in the coastal area of high rainfall. The dominant tree is the eucalyptus, a hardwood of which there are more than 500 species, ranging from small shrubs to some of the tallest trees in the world; many are renowned for the strength and durability of their timber. Other hardwoods include the red cedar, Queensland maple, silky oak, walnut, rosewood and blackwood. The indigenous softwoods are limited; they include the kauri and bunya pines of Queensland, the hoop pine of Queensland and northern New South Wales, the huon, celery-top and King William pines of Tasmania and the cypress pines of the inland. Australia is also the home of a wide range of acacias.

The native animals of Australia are of primitive types. The land species are chiefly marsupial and include the kangaroos, native cats, opossums, koala, pouched mice and wombats. There are also two species of egg-laying mammals, the platypus and the spiny anteater. The dingo, or wild dog, is believed to have been introduced from Asia. Sheep, cattle, horses and other domestic animals have been introduced since the European settlement; imported animals also include rabbits, which have become pests. Birds, often more conspicuous for their gorgeous plumage than their song, include the emu, kookaburra, lyre bird, rosella and many kinds of parrots and cockatoos. Fish abound in the rivers and coastal waters.

At 31st December 1968 the population was estimated to be 12,173,300. This included an estimated 40,000 to 45,000 full blood aborigines, whose nomadic habits, and in some cases remoteness, have prevented a complete census. In 1968 the birth and death rates were 20 per 1,000 and 9.1 per 1,000 respectively. English is the official language and used by the population except for small minorities of the foreign-born. There are, however, many aboriginal languages: it is believed that at the time of the beginning of white settlement there were about 500. Many attempts have been made in the past to link the Australian languages with other parts of the world, i.e., South India, the Andaman Islands and Africa, but without success. It is now considered possible to explain the multiple form of languages on the basis of a single original. As yet a final grouping of the languages among themselves has not been achieved, and the following are the main groups which are clear at present: the prefixing languages of the Kimberleys and North Australian Regions; the languages of the Western Desert; the Aranda Group of Central Australia; the Victorian languages and the languages of Eastern Australia. In the 1961 census 88 per cent of the population acknowledged the Christian faith, 0-7 per cent were non-Christians and the balance were either indefinite, had no religion or made no reply. Primary education is available free throughout Australia. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14-16 years; the permissible school-leaving age varies slightly between State and State. Education, except in the Territories, is controlled by the

State Governments. In addition to the free Government schools, there are church and private schools, most of which charge fees. There are special schools, Government and non-Government, for the handicapped. Secondary education throughout Australia is extensive, covering a period of five to six years (again varying between the States) and including High (Grammar) and Technical schools to University entrance, plus numerous specialist schools and colleges in such particular fields as business and commerce, agriculture and home science. University and other tertiary education, including post-graduate institutions, is also extensive. Illiteracy is virtually non-existent in Australia, except for a minute percentage of persons so handicapped as to be ineducable. Some newly arrived immigrants know little English, but literacy in their own language is one of the requirements for entry to the country. A special education system helps them adjust to the new language.

There are about 66 ports of commercial significance in Australia, the principal being associated with State capital cities and industrial centres. In terms of cargo tonnage (weight and measurement combined) discharged and shipped in 1967-68, the 15 largest ports are:- Sydney (including Botany Bay) 16,998,000 tons, Melbourne 10,567,000 tons; Newcastle 10,499,000 tons; Port Kembla 9,509,000 tons; Fremantle (including Kwinana) 9,210,000 tons; Dampier 7,052,000 tons; Geelong 5,984,000 tons; Whyalla 5,623,000 tons; Brisbane 4,525,000 tons; Port Headland 4,057,000 tons; Gladstone 3,103,000 tons; Port Adelaide 2,713,000 tons; Port Stanvac 2,353,000 tons; Yampi 2,085,000 tons; Westernport 1,682,000 tons. The principal shipping companies are: The Australian National Line, the Union Steamship Co. of New Zealand, the Associated Steamships Pty. Ltd., the Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd., Messrs. Burns Philp & Co. Ltd., The State Shipping Service of Western Australia, Messrs. Wm. Holyman and Sons Pty., Ltd., and Ampol Petroleum Ltd.

There are major airports at, or near, all capital cities and most of the larger cities and towns. All capital city airports cater for inter-State and intra-State services. The armed services-Navy, Army and Air Force-maintain their own bases, catering for their special needs. Thirteen major international airlines operate regular services to and from Australia. At June 1968 there were 670 licensed civil airports. The principal airports, with length of main runway in feet and distance from the centre of the city in miles, are Sydney, 9,100 (5): Essendon 6,300 (8); a second major airport of international standard was completed at Tullamarine near Melbourne in 1970; it occupies an area of 5,300 acres and has runways of 8,500 feet and 7,500 feet with fast turn-outs, modern terminal buildings and the latest in air navigation facilities-Melbourne's present airport, Essendon, cannot be further extended because of the surrounding city; Brisbane 7,760 (4); Perth 10,300 (6·5); Darwin 11,000 (3.5); Adelaide 6,850 (4); Canberra 6,800 (4); Hobart 6,500 (10). The principal Australian airline is Qantas Airways Limited based in Sydney, operating services around the world of 83,054 miles. Ten airlines operate inter-State, intra-State and feeder services throughout Australia and the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, over a network of 100,000 miles. Two major operators are Trans-Australia Airlines (TAA) owned and operated by the Australian National Airlines Commission, a statutory body formed for the purpose by the Federal Government, and Ansett/ANA, the major airlines subsidiary of Ansett Transport Industries Ltd., (ATI), a multi-company organisation engaged in road and air travel, hotels and motels, tourism, manufacturing and television. TAA operates a fleet of about 60 aircraft