an amorphous red substance soluble in water and in alcohol; carmine is a compound of this acid with chalk and alumina. With zinc oxide and alumina carminic acid forms the valuable coloring substance known as carmine lake, which is made from the residues of cochineal obtained in the manufacture of carmine. Carmine lake is largely used in painting and in printing.

CARMO, kär mỏ. See KARMÖ.

CARMONA (Sp., of Celtiberian origin).

A city of Spain, in the Province of Seville, 20 miles northeast of Seville (Map: Spain, C 4). It is situated on an elevated ridge, overlooking a fertile plain, and with its Moorish walls and castle has a very picturesque appearance. It contains the fine Gothic Church of Santa María; the Church of San Pedro, with a tower similar to the Giralda of Seville; a ruined Alcazar; and the interesting gates leading to Córdoba and Seville. A short distance from the city to the west is a Roman necropolis of great archæological value. The city has flour and oil mills, manufactures of woolen cloth, hats, leather, etc., and an important annual fair. Population, in 1900, 16,338. Carmona (known as Carmo) was of considerable importance under the Romans, a prominence which it retained in the Middle Ages. It fell into the power of the Moors, from whom Saint Ferdinand of Castile took it in 1247.

CARMONTELLE, kär'môn'těl', LOUIS CARROGIS (1717-1806). A French dramatist. He was born in Paris, and for several years was reader to the Duke of Orleans, grandson of the regent. His literary reputation rests chiefly on his Proverbes dramatiques (10 vols., Paris, 1768-81; new ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1822), a series of short comedies adapted for private theatricals. In addition to this work, which has been freely borrowed from by later comic writers, his Théâtre de campagne, a collection of more than twentyfive comedies (4 vols., 1775), should be mentioned. He also had considerable artistic talent, and painted portraits of some of the most eminent persons of the Eighteenth Century. Proverbes et comédies posthumes de Carmontelle were published by Mme. de Genlis (3 vols., Paris, 1825).

CARNAC, kär'nåk' (Celtic). A Breton parish and village in the Department of Morbihan, France, 17 miles southeast of Lorient (Map: France, C 4). The village, situated on a gentle slope overlooking the Bay of Quiberon, has an interesting archæological museum and a church built in 1639. The latter contains some fine marble altar-pieces of the Renaissance period. The inhabitants are engaged in agricultural and fishing pursuits, and coasting trade. Population of village, 1901, 646; of commune, 3125. The parish has world-wide fame in connection with some of the most remarkable megalithic monuments extant, and with the remains of a Gallo-Roman town. The chief megalithic relics are situated about half a mile to the north of the village, near the road leading to Auray, on a spacious desolate plain bordering the seashore. They consist of long lines of roughly hewn granitic menhirs or standing stones, varying from 3 to 18 feet in height, which, weather-beaten and covered with minute white lichens, present a succession of weird avenues.

There are three groups, containing 1991 menhirs; in the Sixteenth Century they numbered

more than 15,000. Their exploitation for building purposes and to make room for agricultural improvements during the succeeding three centuries has been arrested by their becoming national property and being authoritatively classed among historical monuments. A fine view of the lines is obtained from the summit of Mont Saint-Michel, a grass-grown 'galgal' or tumulus, 65 feet high and 260 feet in diameter, consisting of blocks of stone piled over a dolmen and crowned with a chapel dedicated to the Archangel Michael.

The origin and object of these ancient monuments remain a mystery. They have been the subject of much archæological speculation and are generally considered to be the Celtic monuments of a Druidical cult, traces of which exist in some of the primitive customs of the natives. In the year B.C. 56, from these shores Cæsar watched the naval victory of Decimus Brutus the younger over the Veneti in the Bay of Quiberon. The Romans occupied Brittany during five centuries, and considerable remains of GalloRoman habitations, with interesting relics, have been excavated at the Bossenno, i.e. mounds, on the plain, 1 mile to the east of Carnac, and also at the base of the artificial Mont Saint-Michel. Consult: Galles, Fouilles du Mont Saint-Michel en Carnac (Paris, 1864), and Tumulus et dolmens de Kercado (Paris, 1864); Fouquet, Des monuments celtiques et ruines romaines dans le Morbihan (Paris, 1873); Lukis, Chambered Barrows and Other Prehistoric Monuments in Morbihan (London, 1875); Miln, Excavations at Car"The French Stonehenge," in British Archeologinac (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1877-81); Worsfold, cal Association Journal, Vol. IV. (London, 1898).

CAR'NALL, RUDOLPH VON (1804-74). A German mining engineer, born at Glatz (Silesia). He studied in Berlin in 1823-24, began an active connection with the mining industry in Upper Silesia, and by 1855 had risen to be a superintendent of mines and director of the general mining office in Breslau. In 1848 he assisted in founding the German Geological Society, and from 1849 to 1855 lectured at the University of Berlin on the science of mining engineering. He was a councilor in the mines and mining section of the Prussian Ministry of Commerce from 1854 to 1861. The Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hütten und Salinenwesen im preussischen Staate was founded by him; and he rendered other important services to the development of German mining.

CARNARVON, or CAERNARVON, kärnär'von (Welsh, Caer-yn-ar-Fon, fort opposite Mona or Anglesey). A Parliamentary and municipal borough and seaport in north Wales, the capital of Carnarvonshire, situated near the south end of the Menai Strait, on the right bank of the Seiont, about 69 miles west of Chester (Map: England, B 3). The eastle, which was begun in the reign of Edward I., about 1283, is generally considered the handsomest and most extensive medieval fortress in the United Kingdom. It is built of red stone, and is an irregular oblong in shape. The outer walls, from 8 to 14 feet in thickness, containing a passageway, are fortified by thirteen embattled towers. In the Eagle Tower the first Prince of Wales (afterwards Edward II.) is said to have been born.

The town itself was once surrounded by walls and round towers. These walls, with several of the gates, still exist, and form a pleasant promenade. The streets are narrow, but regular, and at right angles to each other. The town is well lighted, and has a good water-supply. It is an important commercial centre. The harbor admits ships of 400 tons. The chief exports are copper, ore, coal, and slates, which are brought into the town by rail from the quarries in the neighborhood. There is also a great iron and brass foundry. There are manufactures of writing-slates, enameled slate slabs, and tobacco. Carnarvon is

a bathing-place, and is much frequented by tourists, on account of its vicinity to the grandest scenery in north Wales. Population, in 1891, 9804; in 1901, 9760. Half a mile from Carnarvon are the remains of Segontium, or Cær Seiont, a Roman station or city. There is a Roman fort on the left bank of the Seiont, still almost complete. The Earl of Chester fortified the place in 1098. In 1294 the town and castle were burned and the English inhabitants massacred by the Welsh under Madoc, the son of Llewelyn. Consult Hartshorne, "Carnarvon Castle," Archaeological Journal, Vol. VII. (London, 1850).

CARNARVON, HENRY HOWARD MOLYNEUX HERBERT, fourth Earl of (1831-90). An English Conservative statesman. He was born in London June 24, 1831, and succeeded to the peerage in 1849. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, in 1852 he obtained a first class in classics, and, after taking his degree the following year, traveled through the Orient. In 1860, as a souvenir of the journey, he published a work entitled The Druses of the Lebanon. At his majority he took his seat in the House of Lords, and in 1858 Earl Derby made

him Under Colonial Secretary. In 1859 he was elected high steward of Oxford University and created D.C.L. In 1866 he was appointed Colonial Secretary, and his policy met with the warmest approval. He framed a bill for the confederation of the British North American colonies, and had moved the second reading when he resigned office upon the Reform Bill of 1867, which he condemned as democratic and dangerous. On Disraeli's return to office, in 1874, Lord Carnarvon again became Colonial Secretary, but resigned in 1878. He was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1885-86), and died in London, June 28, 1890. He was the author of an address on Berkshire Archæology (1859); in 1869 edited Reminiscences of Athens and the Morea, by the late Earl of Carnarvon, his father, and published translations of the Agamemnon (1879), the Odyssey (1886), and Prometheus Vinctus (1893). CARNARVONSHIRE. A maritime county in north Wales, bounded north by the Irish Sea, east by Denbigh, with the Conway between, south by Merioneth and Cardigan Bay, and west by Carnarvon Bay and the Menai Strait, the latter separating it from Anglesey (Map: England, B 3). Area, 563 square miles, of which one-half is in pasture and only one-fortieth in tillage. The surface is mountainous. The mineral products of Carnarvonshire are copper, lead, zinc, coal, roofing and writing slates, slabs, chimney-piers, and honestone. The slate-quarries employ many thousands of workmen. The chief branch of rural industry is the rearing of black cattle for the dairy and of small sheep. Wheat, oats, bar

ley, and potatoes are raised in the valleys. The chief towns include Carnarvon (the county town), Bangor, Pwllheli, and Conway. Population, in 1891, 118,200; in 1901, 126,000.

CARNATIC (from Skt. Karnata, name of a people in southern India). A former political division of somewhat indefinite dimensions on the eastern or Coromandel coast of the peninsula of India. It is famous in history as the grand theatre of the struggle in the middle of the land for supremacy in India. It was at that time Eighteenth Century between France and Engruled by the Nawab of Arcot, who was a vassal annexed by the British in 1801. of the Nizam of Hyderabad. The region was

CARNATION (Fr., Lat. carnatio, from caro, flesh). A double-flowering variety of the clove pink (Dianthus caryophyllus) and one of the most popular flowers of that family. It is a native of the south of Europe, and has been in cultivation for more than 2000 years. It is a semihardy perennial (generally cultivated as an annual in America) 2 to 32 feet high, with a branching stem, opposite linear leaves, terminal flowers, and blossoming in England from June to August. The clove-like fragrance of the flowers gave to the plant its specific name caryophyllus (clove-tree, Caryophyllus aromaticolors, are in cultivation. Red, white, pink, and cus). Many varieties, with various forms and yellow varieties predominate. The monthly, tree, or perpetual-flowering carnations are the varieties now so extensively grown under glass in the United States for winter cut flowers. These ber to May, rooted in sand, transplanted to are propagated from cuttings taken from Decemplats or pots, and kept in a cool house until danger from heavy frost is past, when they are set in the field.

Sandy loam soil heavily fertilized is preferred. The plants are set in rows 12 inches apart and 10 inches distant in the row when cultivated by hand, and in 3-foot rows when worked with a horse. If winter flowers are wanted, the rising shoots of the plants are regularly pruned back to 2 to 4 inches during the summer. In September the plants are lifted and transplanted to the forcing-house benches. The soil here is 4 to 5 inches deep, and consists usually of threefourths loam and one-fourth well-rotted manure. The plants are set 8 to 12 inches apart each way, heavily fertilized, and watered frequently with liquid manure. The temperature of the at 60° to 65° in the daytime and ten degrees carnation-house during the winter is maintained the plants are sometimes set in pots, and may lower at night. Instead of setting in benches, either be forced at once or set in cold frames and carried over for spring flowering. Some 500 varieties of carnations, all of American origin, are now in cultivation in the United States. See FLORICULTURE.

Carnation Diseases.-Carnations are liable to a number of diseases, the more common and troublesome being anthracnose, rust, blight or spot, and a disease caused by the punctures of minute insects. The anthracnose (q.v.), which is caused by the fungus Volutella, is widespread, and causes grayish-brown spots on the leaves. Later the stems are invaded by the parasite, and the supply of nourishment for the plant cut off. Diseased cuttings will spread the infection,

hence all such should be rejected. The rust is eaused by Uromyces caryophyllinus, and may be recognized by the blisters on the leaves. Later the blisters are ruptured and the reddish-brown spores escape. A diseased plant cannot be cured, and should be dug out and destroyed. The spot, or blight, is due to the fungus Septoria dianthi. It may be recognized by the light-brown spots, which later bear black dots near their centre.

The stems also are attacked and the plant is unable to perform its proper functions. All of these diseases may be prevented by the thorough use of Bordeaux mixture, copper carbonate solution, or other fungicide (q.v.). The disease caused by insect punctures may be recognized by the pellucid spots in the leaves. The name stigmonose has been lately given it. Anything keeping thrips (q.v.), etc., in check will prevent the disease. Great variation in liability to all the diseases is noticed in different varieties.

CARNAUBA (kär-nou′bå) PALM (Brazilian), or CARANAIBA PALM (Copernicia cerifera). A very beautiful species of South American palm. It ranges from the northern parts of Brazil to Argentina, and in some places forms vast forests. It attains a height of 20 to 40 feet, with a diameter of 8 inches; its timber is valuable, is used in Brazil for a great variety of purposes, and is exported for veneering. The fruit is black, and about the size of an olive; it is sweet, and is eaten both raw and prepared in various ways. Scales of wax cover the under side of the young leaves, and drop off when shaken. Being collected in this way, the wax is melted into masses, and is often used to adulterate beeswax. It is exported and used in the manufacture of candles. Starch is obtained from the stems of the trees, and sugar from the sap. The fibres obtained from the leaves are valuable, being used for cordage, mats, hats, etc. The tree withstands drought to a remarkable degree, and is said to flourish on slightly saline soil. It is hardy only in the warmest parts of the United States.

CARNAVAL DE VENISE, kär'nå'vål' de vâ ́nêz′ (Fr., carnival of Venice). Originally a Venetian street air. It was heard by Paganini on one of his early tours through Italy (beginning 1805) and was elaborated by him into its pres

ent form. In Paris, on December 9, 1953, an

opera by Ambroise Thomas was produced bearing this title, and having the original air as a motif of the overture.

CARNÉ, kär'nā”, LOUIS MARCIEN, Count de (1804-76). A French publicist, born at Quimper. In 1839 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and though opposed to M. Guizot's foreign policy, he accepted the presidency of the commercial department of foreign affairs in 1847, but lost this post after the Revolution of 1848. He became a member of the Academy in 1863. Carné was a frequent contributor to the Revue des Deux Mondes and other journals, and published numerous works, of which the best known are Vues sur l'histoire contemporaine (2 vols., 1833); Etudes sur les fondateurs de l'unité française (2 vols., 1856); Etudes sur l'histoire du gouvernement représentatif en France, de 1789 à 1848 (2 vols., 1855); L'Europe et le Second Empire (1865); Les états de Bretagne et l'administration de cette province

jusqu'en 1789 (2 vols., 1868); and Souvenirs de ma jeunesse au temps de la restauration (1872).

CARNE'ADES (Gk. Kapveάons) (c.214-129 B.C.). A Greek philosopher, the founder of the New Academy. He was born at Cyrene, in Africa, and studied in Athens under Diogenes the Stoic, but attached himself to the Academy and opposed the dogmatism of the Stoa, setting up against their certainty of knowledge simple probability. According to him, the senses and understanding give no certain basis of knowledge,

and therefore our inferences based on them are

In B.C.

only probabilities which may not correspond to the real nature of things, and are therefore no certain tests of truth. On the ethical side, he held that these probabilities were a sufficient guide for life, for the common agreement in men's sensations and experiences must represent in some degree the truth. Carneades enjoyed a great reputation in Athens. 155 he was sent with the Stoic Diogenes and the Peripatetic Critolaus on an embassy to Rome, where he attracted great attention by his eloquence. We hear that he argued before Galba and Cato the Censor, in praise of justice, and the next day undertook to disprove his arguments of the previous day, and so to establish his doctrine of the uncertainty of knowledge. Cato such intellectual jugglery seemed dangerous, and he therefore had the ambassador dismissed, that the Roman youth might not be corrupted. Carneades left no writings behind him, with the exception of certain letters mentioned by Diogenes Laërtius to Ariarathes, King of Cappadocia. See NEW ACADEMY.

To

He

CARNEGIE, kär-negʻi, ANDREW (1837-). An American manufacturer and philanthropist, born in Dunfermline, Fifeshire, Scotland. came to the United States in 1848, and began his career as a weaver's assistant in a cotton-factory at Allegheny, Pa. Here his weekly earnings at first amounted to little more than one dollar. At the age of fourteen he became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburg (Pa.) office of the Ohio Telegraph Company. He improved his spare time in learning to telegraph, and a few years later he entered the service of the Pennsyltelegraph operator. From this position he advania Railroad, and soon received a position as a intendent of the Pittsburg division of the system. vanced by successive promotions to that of superIt was during this period that he became interested in the organization of the Woodruff Sleeping Car Company, the success of which laid the foundation of his fortune, while careful investments in oil lands near Oil City, Pa., increased his means. During the Civil War he rendered valuable services to the War Department as superintendent of military railroads and Government telegraph lines in the East. After the war he entered actively into the development of iron-works of various kinds, and established at Pittsburg such important industries as the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Iron Works. It was in 1868 that he introduced into this country the Bessemer process of making steel. 1888 he was the principal owner of the Homestead Steel Works, and had a controlling interest in seven other large steel plants. His interests were consolidated in 1899 in the Carnegie Steel Company, which in 1901 was merged into the

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