CASTRO, JOSÉ MARIA (1818-). A statesman of Costa Rica, born in San José. He graduated at the University of León, Nicaragua. He was President of Costa Rica from 1847 to 1849, and from 1866 to 1868, when he was superseded by Jimenez. He held the rank of a general of division, and bore the title 'Founder of the Republic of Costa Rica.'

CASTRO ANDRADE Y PORTUGAL, åndrä'dâ ê pôr'too-gül', PEDRO ANTONIO FERNANDEZ DE, Count of Lemos (1634-72). A viceroy of Peru. He was appointed to succeed Diego Benavides y de la Cueva, and entered upon his office on November 21, 1667. The lawlessness in the mining regions he met with severity. Particularly was this true in connection with the silver-mine of one Gaspar de Salcedo at Laycacota, near Lake Titicaca. The enormous revenues derived by Salcedo from this mine angered other mining proprietors of the district. Bushwhacking bands were formed, and blood flowed freely. The viceroy opened at Pancar-colla a court for the trial of such offenses, executed forty-two persons, and banished or fined many more. Having been assured by his confessor, Francisco del Castillo, that he had been needlessly cruel, he had masses said for the souls of his victims, and himself performed menial duties in the conduct of the services.

CASTRO DEL RIO, kä'strô děl re'o (Sp., castle of the river). A town of Spain, in the Province of Cordova, situated on the right bank of the Guadajoz, about 21 miles southeast by south of Cordova (Map: Spain, C 4). A portion of the old town is surrounded by ruined walls. The new town, lying outside of these, has some good streets. The municipal building is worthy of mention. The town has manufactures of woolen and linen fabrics, earthenware, etc., and carries on considerable trade in agricultural produce. Population, in 1900, 11,689.

CASTROGIOVANNI, kä'strô-jo-vän'ne (It., castle of John). A city in the centre of Sicily, 55 miles west of Catania (Map: Italy, J 10). It is delightfully situated on the level top of a hill 2600 feet high, built in the form of a horseshoe that opens toward the east. The town is cool in summer and often very cold in winter. The main street leads up to the ancient citadel, La Rocca, repaired by King Manfred, from the highest tower of which is obtained one of the finest views in Sicily. On the east rises the pyramid of Etna, on the north and west are magnificent mountain ranges, and on the south are visible more mountains and the sea. The cathedral, founded in 1307, has some treasures, and the public library contains valuable incunabula. There are also a museum, a technical institute, and a castle built by Frederick II. of Aragon. The city is a local centre of trade, mainly in sulphur and rock salt. It occupies the site of the ancient Enna, called inexpugnabilis by Livy, and the modern name comes through the Arabic Kasr Yani, the Yani being an Arabic corruption of Enna. Near it is Lake Pergusa, with which is associated the story of Proserpina and Pluto. In the Punic Wars Enna was a centre of combat, and ancient Roman missiles are still picked up in the vicinity. In A.D. 837 its walls defended the inhabitants of the whole district against the Saracens, but in 859 the fortress was captured by treachery. The Normans captured it in 1087.

Population, in 1881 (commune), 19,000; in 1901, 26,081.

CASTRO-URDIALES, -oor'dê-ä'lâs. A town of Spain, in the Province of Santander, situated on the Bay of Biscay (Map: Spain, D 1). It has a good roadstead, and exports timber and fish to Madrid. Fishing and fish-preserving, with some manufactures, constitute the principal industries. Castro-Urdiales, an ancient port, was a Roman colony, Flaviobriga, under Vespasian; in 1173 it was resettled. The town, after having repelled a previous attack, was sacked by the French in 1813. Population, in 1900, 13,068.

CASTROVILLARI, kä'stro-vel-läʼrê. A city in southern Italy, 34 miles north of Cosenza, on two brooks that unite to form the Coscile (Map: Italy, K 8). The ancient part of the town, about the Norman castle, is not inhabited because of malaria. There are many picturesque mountain roads in the vicinity, particularly one that leads to the salt-mines at Lungro. Fruit, wine, and cotton are marketed here. Population, in 1881 (commune), 11,000; in 1901, 9945.

CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI, kå-stroo'cho kä'strå-kä'ne (c.1280-1328). An Italian soldier and Ghibelline leader, chief of the republic of Lucca. A member of a prominent Ghibelline family of Lucca, he was exiled at an early age, and served as a soldier in England, France, and Lombardy until 1313, when he returned to Lucca. Being placed at the head of his State, he played a prominent rôle in the struggle between the Ghibellines and Guelphs in Tuscany. ported the German Emperor, Louis the Bavarian, whom he accompanied on his expedition to Rome in 1327, and who made him Duke of Lucca, Count of the Lateran Palace, and Senator of Rome.

He sup

CAST STEEL. See IRON AND STEEL, METALLURGY OF.

Crownland of Istria, at the head of the Bay of CASTUA, kä'stwȧ. A town in the Austrian Quarnero, near Fiume (Map: Austria, D 4). Population, in 1890 (commune), 16,500; in 1900, 18,town, and was at one time the capital of Liburnia. 000, mostly Serbo-Croatian. Castua is a very old

CASUAL POOR. A term used in the admin

istration of the English Poor Law to indicate persons temporarily relieved without being admitted to the roll of permanent paupers. POOR LAWS.

See

CASUARINA, kăzh'ân-à-ri'nȧ (Neo-Lat., from casuarius, cassowary, from Dutch kasuaar, Malay kassuwaris, so called from the resemblance of the branches to the feathers of the bird). A genus of the order Casuarinaceæ. The trees of this genus are almost exclusively Australian. However, Casuarina equisetifolia is found in the South Sea Islands, the Indian Archipelago, the Malayan Peninsula, and on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, as far north as Arracan, and Casuarina Sumatrana grows in the Philippine Islands. Some of them are large trees, producing timber of excellent quality, hard and heavy, as the beefwood of the Australian colonists, so called from the resemblance in color to raw beef. Casuarina equisetifolia is called in Australia the swamp-oak. It is a lofty tree, attaining a height of 150 feet, the toa or aitoa of the Society Islands, where it grows chiefly on the sides of hills, and where its wood was formerly

used for clubs and other implements of war. It has been introduced into India, where it grows rapidly upon even poor, sandy soil, and where it is much valued, as its wood bears a great strain and is not readily injured by submersion in water. The hardness and durability of this wood led the earlier voyagers to the South Sea Islands to designate it ironwood. Casuarina stricta is the coast she-oak' of New South Wales. In Australia, where the Casuarinas abound, they are considered among the most valuable trees. For the most part, the wood is hard, compact, yet easily worked, and is used in many kinds of building, for implements, cabinet-work, etc. The foliage of most, if not all, species is of an acid nature, and is often chewed to allay thirst. In periods of drought stock eat considerable quantities of the foliage. The first-mentioned species has been quite successfully introduced into parts of Florida and California. 'Cassowary-tree' is a popular generic name of the Casuarinas. Some of the species are scrubby bushes. All of them have a very peculiar appearance, their branches being long, slender, wiry, drooping, green, and jointed, with very small, scale-like sheaths instead of leaves. They resemble arborescent equisetums, or horse-tail rushes. The fruit consists of hardened bracts, collected in a cone and inclosing small winged nuts. The flowers have neither calyx nor corolla; the stamens and pistils are on separate flowers. More than twenty species are known. CASUISTRY, kazh'û-is-tri (from casuist, Fr. casuiste, from Lat. casus, instance). The science which guides the human conscience in the fulfillment of its duties. As doubts occur, either as to the reality or extent or urgency of the laws by which it is governed, 'cases' come up which have to be judged. That part of theology which deals with such matters is called moral theology. Casuistry developed as circumstances called for new and clearer interpretations of divine and human enactments. In the first centuries it was extremely simple, and the treatises on it consisted mainly of conciliar decrees, or collections of penitential canons such as those attributed to Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus, Saint Peter of Alexandria, Saint Basil, and Saint Gregory of Nyssa. From the Seventh to the Eleventh Century the work known as The Penitential Book, which was a digest of canons, sentences, and decrees, was the manual commonly used. But moral theology proper began with the Schoolmen of the Thirteenth Century. The most noteworthy of the treatises then written was the Summa de Casibus Particularibus (c.1238), of Saint Raymond of Peñaforte. Other conspicuous casuists of the century were the Englishman Alexander of Hales, Vincent of Beauvais, and John of God. In the Fourteenth Century we have John of Freiburg, Astensis, Monaldus, Bartholomæus, Ranulphus Higdenus, and, most famous of all, Joannes de Burgo. In the Fifteenth Century, Gerson's famous Opusculum Tripartitum enjoyed the greatest reputation. Saint Bernardine of Sienna, Saint John Capistran, and Saint Antoninus also wrote on moral subjects. But the one who has exercised the widest influence is, of course, Saint Thomas Aquinas, who in his Secunda Secundæ treats of moral theology in its organic connection with dogma. Its strictly scientific character, however, makes it somewhat unavailable as a manual for common use. Making this

science practical was the achievement of the Sixteenth Century. The extraordinary development of this particular branch of theological knowledge was largely due to the doctrine of Probabilism.

This was not a new doctrine, but it was inaugurated as a system by a Spanish Dominican named Medina. The theory may be thus stated: A man in doubt about the lawfulness of an act has solid reasons for thinking it is lawful. These reasons may be intrinsic to the matter itself, or extrinsic, namely, the authority of some respectable theologian. But there may be contrary reasons of equal or greater weight than those in favor of it. Which course is he to elect? Probabilism teaches that he is free to do as he chooses, provided his reasons for acting be genuine and solid. He proceeds on the principle that as the law is not certain, either as to its existence or its binding force, he is free; for no one is bound by a doubtful obligation. This liberty, however, is restricted if for some major obligation he is bound to take every reasonable means to achieve a certain object. A hunter cannot discharge his rifle where it is merely probable no one will be hit; he must take every reasonable precaution; a Catholic priest cannot act on the doctrine of probability where there is question of the validity of a sacrament. But apart from these antecedent obligations of justice, charity, and religion, Probabilism leaves a man free when he has good reasons for judging that he is doing right.

ar

Against this doctrine four schools were rayed: the Tutiorists or Rigorists, who were either absolute or mitigated, the former requiring absolute certainty, the latter the greatest probability; the Probabiliorists, who taught that in cases of doubt a man should always follow the safer course; the Equiprobabilists, who al lowed liberty of action only when the reasons pro and con were evenly balanced, but modified that concession by saying that when the existence of the law was certain or even more probable, there could be no liberty against it, for the law being certainly or more probably in possession exacted fulfillment; the Laxists, who contended that one is free to act if he has even a

slight reason to conclude that he is in the right. The Laxists were condemned by Innocent XI., and the Absolute Tutiorists by Alexander VII.

On these lines a fierce and protracted theological battle began, which finally narrowed down

to a contest between the Probabiliorists and the Probabilists. From 1580 to 1650 Probabilism

held possession. After that a reaction set in, and Probabiliorism was the favorite doctrine. At present the conditions have reverted to what they were in the beginning, and Probabilism almost everywhere prevails, in the Roman Catholic Church. The chief exponents are Saint Alphonsus Liguori, Scavini, Gury, and Ballerini.

The acrimony of these debates gave rise to the odious significations which have been affixed to the word Casuistry. After the accusations of the Jansenists (see PASCAL; JANSENISM) ceased about the middle of the Eighteenth Century, many Protestant writers took them up and denounced the casuistry of Probabilism as lax, equivocating, permitting the most detestable crimes, and outraging the most sacred obligations. These charges, no longer seriously made by intelligent students, have given rise to the secondary meaning of the word Casuistry as, according to some, a method of over-subtle, so

phistical, and dishonest reasoning for the purpose of evading the law; others regard it as an elimination of individual reason and conscience, and a blind submission to authority.

CA'SUS BELLI (Lat., case of war). The ground alleged by one power to justify its going to war with another. The grounds which, in international law, are recognized as affording a justification for war are: (a) The defense of the sovereignty and independence of the State; (b) the redress of grave injuries inflicted by a foreign power on the citizens of a State; (c) to obtain satisfaction for violations of the honor of a State, as for insults to its flag or its ambassadors; (d) the enforcement in serious cases of treaty obligations; (e) the prevention of threatened or intended injury, as a sudden disturbance of the balance of power in Europe, or the disregard by a European power of the Monroe Doctrine of the United States; (f) in rare cases, the prevention of flagrant wrong against religion or liberty, or grave oppression of a colony or weaker State, as in the war of the United States against Spain for the liberation of Cuba. (See INTERVENTION.) The humane tendencies of modern international law seek to restrict the causes for war, and by moral pressure to induce an offended State patiently to seek every other means of effecting its object before resorting to the dire expedient of war. See ACTS OF HOSTILITY; INTERNATIONAL LAW; HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE; WAR, and the authorities there referred to.

CASWELL, kǎz'wel, ALEXIS (1799-1877). An American educator. He was born in Taunton, Mass., graduated at Brown University in 1822, and entered the Baptist ministry. He was professor of mathematics in Brown University from 1828 to 1850, and of mathematics and astronomy from 1850 to 1864, and was president from 1868 to 1872. He published several papers on meteorology in the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution, and a Memorial of John Barstow (1864).

CASWELL, RICHARD (1729-89). A patriot soldier of the American Revolution, and the first Governor of the State of North Carolina. He was born in Maryland, emigrated to North Carolina in 1746, studied and practiced law, and soon became prominent in Colonial politics. He was a member of the Colonial Assembly from 1754 to 1771, and was elected Speaker of the House of Commons in 1770 and 1771. He also attained prominence as an officer in the Colonial militia, and on May 16, 1771, commanded the right wing of Governor Tryon's forces in the battle of Alamance against the insurrectionary Regulators. He was active as a member of the Whig, or Patriot, Party in the discussions which preceded the Revolution, and in 1774 and 1775 was a delegate to the Continental Congress. In September, 1775, he was appointed one of the treasurers of North Carolina. He commanded the minutemen, numbering about 1000, who, on February 27, 1776, defeated a force of Loyalists, mostly Scotch emigrants, under Donald Macdonald, at Moore's Creek, N. C.; and for this victory, the effect of which, says Fiske, "was as contagious as that of Lexington had been in New England" (Fiske, The American Revolution, I., 177), he was appointed brigadier-general of the Newbern District. In

1776 he was a member of the committee of the Provincial Congress which drew up the State Constitution-one tradition attributing the authorship of that document altogether to himand from 1776 to 1778 he served as Governor. In 1780 he commanded the North Carolina militia during the invasion of the State by the British, and took part in the battle of Camden on August 16. He afterwards served as Speaker of the State Senate and Controller-General from

1782 to 1785, and as Governor, for a second term,

from 1785 to 1787, and in 1789 was a member of the State convention which ratified the Federal Constitution.

CAT (AS. catt, Ger. Katze, Fr. chat, OF. cat, It. gatto, Sp., Portug. gato, Welsh cath, Corn. cath, Ir., Gael. cat, OChurch Slav. koteli, O. Pruss. catto, cat, Lat. catus, cub; borrowed in Finn. katti, Turk. qadi, Ar. qitt, qutt, Hind. katās; of uncertain origin). The cats are typical æluroid carnivores, constituting the family Felidæ, and well represented by the ubiquitous house-cat, which is considered at length below. Cats in general, as a family, are distinguished among carnivores by their uniformity of structure, by the flexibility and strength of the spine, the small head, capable of being turned in any direction, the looseness of the skin, and the exceeding suppleness, quickness, and muscularity, the last especially exhibited in the jaws and in the wonderful arrangement of levers in the limbs. These are correlated with their predatory habits, and manner of procuring their prey, which is by lying in wait, or by stealthy approach, followed by a spring, a clutch of the therefore, represents agility and power in the claws, and a crushing bite. All the anatomy, highest degree; and all cats except two or three of the heaviest (lion, tiger) are arboreal to a greater or less degree. The skull is remarkable for the bony ridges which give attachment to the great jaw-muscles, the immense size of which causes a corresponding increase in the

width of the zygomatic arches; and the facial portion, short in all carnivora as compared with herbivora, is here much shorter than in the dog or bear tribes, giving the characteristic roundness to the head. The lower jaw is strongly attached, and capable only of a simple hinge-like motion. The dentition consists of six small incisors in each jaw, large canines, and one permanent molar on each side, that in the upper jaw being small, the lower large and acting against the fully developed premolar in the upper. All

Teeth of left side in both jaws: m mu, molars; pm pm, pre-molars; c c, canines; i i, incisors.

only three times the length of the body. The most striking and characteristic peculiarity of cat-structure, however (though imperfect in one genus-Cynælurus; see CHEETA), is the arrangement for the protrusion and retraction of the claws, by which they are made the principal instruments whereby these creatures get their living. Their plan, as has been said, is to get as near as possible to their animal prey, seize and hold it until they can overcome it by biting through the arteries of the neck (in the case of large quadrupeds) or otherwise put it to death; they cannot chase it down and worry it to death after the manner of dogs. This requires that their toes should be separated, flexible, and capable of a powerful grip, and their claws sharp and hooked. The acquirement of

a

b

MECHANISM OF CAT'S CLAWS.

a, Toe at rest (claw sheathed): b, toe in action (claw thrown forward). The illustration shows the elastic ligament which passes from above the root of the claw downward and backward to the distal part of the second phalanx; also the long fiexor tendon (which by being pulled backward draws down the claw) passing through the ligamentous loop attached to the under surface of the middle phalanx. The sesamoid bone beneath the distal end of the metacarpal is also shown. (After Mivart.)

such tools has been accompanied by provision for keeping them out of the animal's way, in the ordinary use of its feet, and at the same time saving them from becoming blunted by contact with the ground, as happens to those of all other clawed animals, by a peculiar arrangement.

In the cats, the last (third) phalanx, or tipbone, of the toe, which carries the claw, does not touch the ground, but it is so modified as to turn up beneath a hood of skin over the end of the bone (second phalanx) next behind it; this it does naturally, when at rest, by virtue of the elasticity of a ligament which passes from it down to the second phalanx, and holds it in place without any conscious effort. From the lower (proximal) end of this claw-bone a powerful flexor tendon runs back beneath the bones of the toe to the leg-muscles, the contraction of which pulls the claw down with a circular motion which drives it and hooks it into the flesh, where it will tear loose before it will let go. Such is the mechanism of the action so familiar and effective in the cat when she is angry and 'shows her claws.' The cheeta (q.v.) lacks this power, and correspondingly its predatory habits partake of much that characterizes dogs.

Cats are mainly nocturnal in their habits, and the pupils of their eyes, which, as a rule, are vertically linear, are capable of great expansion and contraction, according to the light about them; the lion, however, by virtue of his fearlessness and circumstances generally, is mainly diurnal and has round pupils. The eyesight is good, but at night is supplemented by the highly sensitive feelers (vibrissæ), long hairs projecting from the muzzle and above the eyes, each springing from a follicle from which a special nerve communicates with the brain. The sense

of smell, though fairly developed, is inferior to that of dogs and various other animals. The hearing, however, is exceedingly sharp, the resonance of the sound being increased by the great size of the auditory bulla.

Cats are clothed in soft and usually rather long fur, longest in those, such as the ounce, which live in cold regions, and shortest in the desert species, especially the lion, which is further distinguished by a mane in the male sex. Little difference, as a rule, obtains between the sexes in size or appearance; but the kittens are often quite unlike their parents. Their pelts have never entered largely into the fur trade, however, except in the form of tigerskin floor-rugs, etc. The colors are mainly dark, with a prevalence of reddish or yellowish, and there is a universal and strong tendency toward spottedness (of which striping is another form), the young showing it even where the adult is concolorous, as in the lion, puma, eyra, etc. Arguments have been freely adduced for the value of this coloration in making the cats unI noticeable, but when it is learned that species almost oppositely colored and marked live and hunt under identical circumstances with apparently equal success, the force of the speculation is seriously diminished.

Cats are not gregarious, or coöperative, but live and hunt alone, or in family parties; all are monogamous except the lion; and the reputation which some have for permanent mating is probably deserved only when an annual change of mate is impracticable because of scarcity or competition. They inhabit dens and lairs among rocks, in hollow trees, or dense thickets, without any special preparation, and the number of kittens does not usually exceed two in the large forms, but in the small species may be three, four, or five. These are usually born in the late spring of temperate latitudes or at the