was banished, so shattered his health that, though recalled soon after, he died in August of the same year. Of Cavalcanti's poems two excellent critical editions have recently appeared: one edited by Arnone (Florence, 1881), the other by Ercole (Leghorn, 1885). Consult also Bartoli, Storia della letteratura italiana, Vol. IV. (Florence, 1881).

CAVALCASELLE,

kå-väl'kå-sĕllâ, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1820-97). An Italian arthistorian, born in Legnago, and educated at the Academy of Venice, and in Padua, Milan, and Munich. He joined the Revolution of 1848, and after the reverses of 1849 was compelled to go into exile in England. There he wrote with J. A. Crowe an important work on The Early Flemish Painters (1857, 2d ed. 1872). He also wrote with Crowe a five-volume History of Painting in Italy (1864-71), from which the life of Titian was detached for the fourth centenary of the artist, and published as Tiziano, la sua vita ed i suoi tempi (1877). He was subsequently inspector of the National Museum in Florence, and director-general of fine arts in Rome. His other publications include a volume on Raphael (1884). CAVALIER, kǎv'å-lēr' (OF. cavalier, Fr. chevalier, from It. cavaliere, Sp. caballero, Med. Lat. cabellarius, horseman, knight, from Lat. caballus, horse, from the Celtic or Welsh caffyl, horse, Gael. capull, mare). A horse-soldier. In English history, a name applied to the adherents of King Charles I. as opposed to 'Roundheads' (q.v.), or friends of the Parliament.

CAVALIER. In fortification, a defense-work constructed on the terre-plein, or level ground of a bastion. See FORTIFICATION.

CAVALIER, kȧ'vȧ'lyâ', JEAN (c.1680-1740). The famous chief of the Camisards (q.v.). He was a native of Lower Languedoc, the son of a peasant, and was first a shepherd, and afterwards a baker. He was driven from home by the pitiless persecution of Protestants that followed upon the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and took refuge in Geneva. When the persecution under Louis XIV. drove the Protestants of the Cévennes to revolt, Cavalier returned in 1702 to his own country, where he became one of the leaders of the insurrection, which broke out in July of that year. Roland was put in chief command, but Cavalier soon rose to be his equal, and, though untrained in arms, he displayed extraordinary skill as well as courage. Although the 'Children of God,' as the insurgents were called, numbered at the most not more than 3000 men, they coped successfully with the far greater forces of the King, and were never entirely conquered. After several conflicts, Cavalier changed the seat of war to Vivarais, and on February 10, 1703, defeated the royal troops at Ardèche. A few days later he was himself defeated, but was successful in subsequent encounters, invaded the region of the plains, and even threatened Nîmes. In April, 1704, he was defeated by Marshal Montrevel, but retreated with two-thirds of his forces. When Marshal Villars was sent against the Camisards, Roland remained obdurate, but Cavalier agreed to treat, and received a colonel's commission and a pension, while his father and other Protestant prisoners were liberated. As this treaty did not secure general liberty of conscience, Cavalier was denounced as a traitor, and was so disheartened by his treatment everywhere that he left

France for Switzerland, and from there passed to Holland, where he married. He then entered the service of England, became the Lead of a regiment of French refugees, and served with the English forces in Spain in 1705. After his return to England he was made a major-general and Governor of Jersey, and finally Governor of the Isle of Wight. He died at Chelsea in 1740. Cavalier published in 1726 his Memoirs of the Wars of the Cévennes.

CAVALIERI, kä'vå-lyā'rê, BONAVENTURA FRANCESCO (1598-1647). An Italian mathematician and astronomer. He was educated at Pisa, and was a pupil of Castelli. In 1629 he was made professor at Bologna, where he died. His chief contribution to mathematics is the method of indivisibles, first conceived in 1629 and published in 1635. This method forms a connecting link between the Greek method of exhaustions and the methods of Newton and Leibnitz. The basal idea of the method consists in considering a line as composed of a series of points (or small line-segments of equal length), a surface as composed of a series of adjacent lines (or strips of area of equal width), and a solid as composed of a series of planes (or laminæ of equal thickness). In general, however, a summation of such elements, if they are finite (no matter how small), only approximates, but does not equal, the length, area, or volume of a given magnitude. E.g. consider a triangle as composed of a series of very narrow rectangles constructed on its base; the sum of such elements will differ the less from the area of the triangle, the smaller the width of the rectangles; but as long as that width remains a finite quantity, the difference in area will, evidently, likewise remain finite. Nevertheless,

D

S'

it was thus actually employed for measuring areas and volumes for more than half a century before the introduction of the integral calculus. For example, it was used to prove the proposition that two solids lying between two parallel planes, and such that the two sections made by any plane parallel to the given planes are equal, are themselves equal; as, for example, S and S' in the accompanying Fig. 1. Such solids are called Cavalieri bodies. This forms one of the best bases for proving that the volume of a sphere is r3 for, as may be seen from Fig. 2, the area of the ring CD is easily shown to be

FIG. 2.

(2x2), and this is also easily shown to be the area of the circle AB. Hence the sphere and

Hence

the difference between the cone and cylinder are two Cavalieri bodies, and are therefore equal. v = π r2. 2 r —☎ r2. }r = }πr3. This method solved many difficult problems and enabled Cavalieri to give a satisfactory demonstration of Guldin's theorem. published in the Exercitationes Geometrica Sex (1647). By means of it, also, Torricelli proved that the area of a cycloid (q.v.) is three times the area of the generating circle. Since the method of Cavalieri, combined with the modern theory of limits, offers an easy and correct way of expressing the areas and volumes of several elementary forms, and since it is a natural stepping-stone to the methods of integral calculus, it is desirable material for elementary instruction. Cavalieri's chief works are: Geometria Indivisibilibus Continuorum Nora Quadam Ratione Promota (Bologna, 1635); Exercitationes Geometrica Sex (Bologna, 1647); Specchio ustorio ovvero trattato delle settioni coniche (Bologna, 1632); and Trigonometria Plana et Spherica (Bologna, 1635).

CAVALIERI, kä'vå-lya'rē, or CAVALIERE, -râ, EMILIO DEL (c.1550-c.1599). An Italian composer. He was born in Rome of excellent family, received a good education, and was called to the Court of the Medici in Florence as "InspectorGeneral of Art and Artists." He had a dislike for contrapuntal music, and aimed at giving expression to the monodic style by supplying an accompaniment in figured bass (basso continuato) and laying particular stress on the melody, which he embellished with grupettos and trills. He wrote numerous madrigals and musical plays, of which Disperazione di Filene, Il satiro (both 1590), and Guioco della cieca (1595) are by many considered the first operas. His great work Rappresentazione di anima e di corpo, which was performed in Rome in 1600, is also regarded as the first oratorio. He died in Florence.

CAVALLARI, kä'vål-lä'rê, FRANCESCO SAVERIO (1809-96). An Italian archæologist, born in Palermo. He is principally known for his discoveries of Sicilian antiquities. He was also director of the School of Fine Arts in the City of Mexico from 1856 until 1863. Then he returned to Sicily, and became director of antiquities there. His publications are: Ritratti Messicani (1866); Belle arti e civiltà (1868); Relazione sullo stato delle antichità di Sicilia, sulle scoperte e sui ristauri fatti dal 1860 al 1872 (1873), and some memoirs.

CAVALLERIA RUSTICANA, kå-väl'låre à roo'stê-kä'nå. See MASCAGNI, PIETRO.

CAVALLI, kå-väl'lê, FRANCESCO (c.1600-76). An Italian composer of music, whose real name was Pietro Francesco Caletti Bruni. He was born in Crema. His father was maestro di cappella at the Church of Santa Maria, and the boy's talent gained him the patronage of Federigo Cavalli, podestà of Crema, whose name he assumed. He studied under Monteverde, and was his greatest pupil and follower. He was made organist in San Marco in 1665, and in 1668 became maestro di cappella, holding this post until his death, in Venice, in 1676. A collection of Cavalli's church music was published in Venice in 1656, some vespers for eight voices in 1675, and an 8-part Requiem. But it is as a dramatic composer that Cavalli is celebrated. He treated the style developed by Caccini, Peri, and Monteverde with

greater freedom in rhythm, and, though his har mony is crude, he gave greater dramatic expression to the whole. By introducing solos and set numbers into the opera, he prepared the way for Alessandro Scarlatti (q.v.), the real creator of modern opera. His operas (42 in number) contain much music that is admirable even from a modern point of view. His operas include: Le Nozze di Tetide e di Peleo (1639); La Didone (1641); Il Giasone (1649); Alessandro (1651); Il Serse (1654); and L'Artemisia (1656). Consult Ambros, Geschichte der Musik, Vol. IV. (Leipzig, 1878). For a sketch of Cavalli's importance in the development of dramatic composition, see OPERA.

CAVALLI, GIOVANNI (1809-79). An Italian soldier and inventor, born in Turin. Sent by the Piedmontese Government to Sweden to investigate the manufacture of cannon, he began (1846) those experiments with breech - loading guns which became the basis for all similar innovations since made. The guns constructed by him were first used by the Piedmontese artillery at the siege of Gaeta in 1860-61. In 1865 Cavalli became commandant of the Military Academy in Turin. Among his numerous publications, all of which are written in French, the following is especially noteworthy: Aperçu sur les canons rayés se chargeant par la bouche et par la culasse et sur les perfectionnements à apporter à l'art de la guerre en 1861 (1862).

CAVALLINI, kä'vål-lē'nê, PIETRO (12701350). An Italian painter and mosaicist. He was a pupil of the school of the Cosmati (q.v.), the Greek mosaicists, and assisted some of that family in their work in the Roman churches. Afterwards he worked with Giotto, and may have helped him with the mosaics in the porch of Saint Peter's. He is known to have been in Naples in 1308, in the service of King Robert. Of his frescoes little remains. The mosaics attributed to him in Santa Maria in Trastevere are by the Cosmati; those in San Paolo Tuori le Mura are his, probably executed between 1316 and 1334. The "Crucifixion" at Assisi, attributed to him by Vasari, is the work of the Sienese Ambrogio and Pietro Lorenzetti.

CAVALLOTTI, kä’vål-lôt’tê, FELICE (182498). An Italian dramatist and politician, born in Milan. When only 18 years of age, he published Germania e Italia, a bitter attack on Germany, and joined the forces of Garibaldi. Subsequently he turned his pen against the Italian Government and was repeatedly sentenced to imprisonment. After his release he wrote his first successful play, I Pezzenti (1871). This was followed by Alcibiade (1874), which met with extraordinary success. He was elected deputy in 1873 and frequently reëlected. In Parliament and also as editor of the Secolo he was a consistent Republican. He was killed in a duel in Rome.

CAVAL LY (Sp. caballa, horse-mackerel, from caballo, horse, from Lat. caballus, horse), or CREVALLE. A carangid fish (Caranx hippus) of the Atlantic coast of the United States and southward, allied to the pompano, and typical of the large genus Caranx. Its usual weight is about 10 pounds, and it is highly esteemed, when young, as food. It is a voracious, predatory fish, takes the hook readily, and often feeds in the surf, where it affords

sport with a rifle. A second, more slender species (Carana pisquetus) is called horsecavally (a tautological name, as cavally is a corruption of the Spanish-American name caballa, horse'), and is known in the New York market as yellow mackerel, or hard-tail. See Plate of HORSE MACKEREL.

CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, It. cavalleria, from Lat. caballus, horse). Á name given to soldiers trained to fight mounted, or also on foot.

ANCIENT CAVALRY.

The earliest mention of military horsemen is

found in the Bible. In Genesis and Isaiah the horses and horsemanship of Palestine and among the Arabs are highly extolled. Diodorus, the historian, mentions an expedition of 20,000 horsemen to put down a rebellion in Bactria. It is probable that the war chariot antedated cavalry as a fighting arm; with scythe-blades attached to the end of the axles the chariot became not only a terrible engine, but was also useful to transport foot-soldiers quickly to the battlefield. The creation of regular cavalry is ascribed to the Egyptian King Rameses II., about B.C. 1330. The earliest cavalry arms were the lance, the javelin, and the bow. Of these the first named has alone survived the changes of centuries and is used to-day, side by side with the latest arms of precision and the newest weapons of war. "In a barbarous country" (says Marshal Marmont), "where industry has not yet found its way, where there exist neither manufactories nor armories, nor money wherewithal to buy arms abroad, a man mounts his horse and wants a weapon. He cuts a long branch of light wood,

2

GREEK CAVALRY ARMS AND ARMOR.

1, sword; 2, helmet; 3, quiver; 4, cuirass of metal; 5, pointed sword or dagger; 6, cuirass of metal scales and leather; 7, bow.

sharpens the point, hardens it in the fire, and there is his lance. Later he procures a nail and fastens it to the end; his weapon has already become more dangerous. Finally, this staff is

furnished with an iron tip regularly shaped, and behold the lance which is now generally adopted." A javelin or dart is a small lance to be thrown, and was often made so as to break or bend upon piercing an enemy's body.

An early writer on horsemanship is Xenophon; he states that the Greeks used cavalry in war as early as B.C. 743. Epaminondas did much to develop this arm as a military force, raising and training a body of 5000 mounted men. The Grecian cavalry under Philip of Macedon and Alexander

the Great won great

renown. It was divided at first into two classes-heavy

and light-to which Alexander added a third, trained to fight either on foot or on horseback. The heavy cavalry consisted of men carefully selected and who supplied

their own horses; the remainder were mounted by the State. The heavy horsemen wore cuirasses of mail, and carried a long lance and a short sword;

CAVALRY ILE.

the light horse were without armor, and carried javelins, daggers, and bows; all rode bareback. of 64 men; the formation of the ile was 16 front The tactical unit of this force was the 'ile' (n) and 4 deep, or 8 front and deep. They sometimes charged in line, but generally in oblong, wedge-shaped columns, the head of which was driven against the enemy like the point of a spear to penetrate their line; two of these triangles were sometimes joined in the shape of a lozenge, as above:

This formation was abandoned by Alexander for a more open order and extended front, that which he applied at Arbela, where he defeated Darius, King of Persia. The Greek cavalry numbered 7000, divided into two wings. The Persians, clad in armor, outnumbered their opponents, who were dressed and armed as light cavalry. Alexander, leading his right wing, rapidly extended his lines so as to overlap the enemy's front, who, in trying to meet this unexpected movement, left a gap which Alexander promptly occupied, separating the Persian forces and driving them back in confusion. Having thus disposed of part of the enemy, Alexander concentrated his force upon the remainder of Darius's army, which he routed and pursued a distance of 75 miles in 24 hours. The tactical principles illustrated in this engagement form the basis of the best modern cavalry methods. After the death of Alexander, the Greek cavalry gradually sank into insignificance.

The Romans gave more attention to their infantry than to their cavalry, which, indeed, suffered from want of horses and competent leaders. Their system resembled that of the Greeks in that it comprised the heavy, the light, and a kind called velites, trained to fight on foot as well as on horseback. In fact, by reason of their close union with the infantry on the battle-field they were inclined to dismount upon the slightest pre