text. "At Cannæ," says Polybius, "when the Spanish and Gallic cavalry, advancing from the left wing of the Carthaginians, encountered the Romans, the conflict that ensued was, indeed, most warm and vehement, such as resembled rather the combat of barbarians than a battle fought by disciplined and experienced troops. For, instead of falling back and again returning to the charge, as the custom was in such engagements, they had scarcely joined, when, leaping from their horses, each man seized his enemy." Roman writers assert that their cav alry were often successful with this method of fighting, although the modern light cavalryman would make short work of such imprudence. In their encounters with the Carthaginian cavalry the Romans sustained crushing defeats. Hannibal appreciated the value of cavalry. His favorite methods of employing the arm were (1) to turn the enemy's wings and attack him in flank and rear, and (2) to place a mounted corps in ambush and suddenly fall upon his rear. The best Roman generals, lacking cavalry, were forced to avoid the plains and take up positions upon the hills, as safer for their operations.

Eventually the Romans, whose proportion of cavalry to infantry had been one-tenth, increased it to one-fourth, with which increase and improved training, at the battle of Zama, they were enabled to drive back the Carthaginian cavalry and thereupon attacked Hannibal's infantry in flank and rear, defeating it with a loss of 20,000 men. The Roman cavalry rode without saddles, but their horses were equipped with leather housings. They were armed like the

2

ARMS AND ARMOR OF ROMAN CAVALRY.

1 and 2, helmets; 3, cavalry sword; 4, cuirass of general Officer; 5, coat of mail of soldier.

Greeks, although the sword had a very broad, sharp blade, and was worn on the right side, suspended by a belt from the shoulder; under Vespasian the sword was removed to the left side, and its place was taken by a dagger. A belmet, a cuirass (of leather or metal), and a small round buckler completed the soldier's equipment.

The Romans fought with face uncovered; some of the opposing allies wore a leathern helmet closed in front, and said to be the prototype of the knight's helmet, with visor down, of media

val times. The cavalry, when first organized in the regal period, was composed of the better class of citizens, and the celeres, or king's bodyguard, consisted exclusively of young noblemen. Toward the end of the Republic the knights began to withdraw from the army, and it was thereafter recruited largely from foreigners. The Roman legion originally consisted of 3000 infantry and 300 cavalry. This mounted body was, by Servius Tullius, increased to 2400. "The cavalry was divided into ten troops (turma); the first, as the companion of the first cohort, consisted of 132 men, while each of the other nine comprised 66. The entire establishment formed a regiment of 726 horses, naturally connected with its respective legion, but occasionally separated to act in the line and to compose a part of the wings of an army." (Gibbon.) These companies, or turma, were formed in various ways-at one time in eight files and four ranks; afterwards in three sections of three files or three ranks, each section commanded by its decurio (lieutenant), and followed by its uragus (file-closer); and at a later period into ten files and three ranks, commanded by the first decurio, the two others being posted, one on either flank.

Hannibal's auxiliaries included both Numidian and Gallic horsemen. The first were small men, on small, active horses, which were managed solely with a leather thong. In their manner of fighting the Numidians resembled the Cossacks. "In his formation for battle, Hannibal threw into the centre of his line all the bridled and heavy cavalry, and placed the Numidians on the wing, that they might be ready to surround the Romans." (Polybius.) The Gallic cavalry were perhaps the most efficient of the auxiliaries. Like the Greeks and Romans, they had no saddles, which date only from the time of Constantine, nor stirrups, which were invented by the Franks. For that reason, cases of hernia were quite common among these troops.

MEDIEVAL CAVALRY.

In the so-called 'age of chivalry' war became to a great extent a matter of individual combat. Military science languished during a period devoted to knights in armor-tournaments at which fair ladies encouraged champions to break a lance.' Indeed, that weapon became the real badge of nobility; and in France at one time serfs were forbidden to use it. The lance was reserved, under the laws instituted by William the Conqueror, for the use of 'freemen.' Eventually, in consideration of its practical value, the lords permitted their vassals to use, in time of war, a lance, the head of which was never burnished, and at the close of the war was hung on the wall and allowed to rust, "lest the vassals should grow too proud." To this day, in France, the old gun blackened with smoke or the rusty sword may be seen over the fireplace of the peasant, as in medieval times rested the smoked lance of his forefathers. Other arms of this period were the long, heavy sword, two-edged, often straight on one side and waved on the other; an axe added to the pike became the forerunner of the halberd-the 'morgenstern' (morning star) of the Germans, used by the Swiss at the battle of Morgarten (A.D. 1315), and the 'goaden dag' (good day), which the Flemings used with terrible effect at the battle of Courtrai (1302). Other rude weapons, inventions of the

blacksmith, were called gisarms or bisarms. The nature of these weapons caused a revival of the heavy plate armor of the ancients, vastly improved in point of flexibility, and worn both by horse and rider. The expense of this outfit was of course enormous. At the siege of Harfleur (1415), Comte Saint Pol's 'chanfrain' (horse-head armor) cost $30,000, and that of Comte Saint Foix $15,000; both were inlaid with gold and jewels. The horses were more vulnerable than their riders, as their legs were exposed to attack. The rider, when dismounted, was assailed with mace, battle-axe, or stones, in the attempt to crack his shell. At the storming of fortresses the knights dismounted and fought on foot, and Père Daniel says "that the splendor and extent of victories was always denoted by the number of knights, squires, and other gentlemen who had been killed or taken." Tactics were unknown among the early knights. In battle they formed in single rank, and each sought out his opponent and rode against him with couched lance, in order to disable or capture him.

While one may smile at the medieval horseman with his cumbrous armor, still his training in the use of arms, management of his horse, and self-reliance were valuable from the cavalry point of view. While that arm as a force in war had lost prominence, it was by no means dead. At the beginning of the Eighth Century the Frankish Army was largely composed of mounted men. In the Tenth Century Europe suffered greatly from the incursions of the Hungarian horsemen until Henry I. of Germany, reorganizing his cavalry and adopting the methods of the common enemy, finally defeated them. the Mongols invaded Central Europe and encountered the heavy, armor-clad cavalry of those regions, and the struggle between the two systems ended in victory for the light horsemen. The Mongols would not stand a charge, but, dispersing, would exhaust their opponents in pursuit, and then rallying, would turn, and, rushing upon the broken masses, speedily decided the contest.

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KNIGHT MOUNTED, 1558.

In 1241

The application of gunpowder to war purposes in Europe early in the Fourteenth Century (although its origin is variously ascribed to the Chinese and to the Arabs), wrought a revolu

tion in things civil as well as military. War became a science, and in 1445 Charles VII. of France first organized a standing army and infused new life into the cavalry arm. The soldiers were assigned to permanent quarters and placed under rigid discipline. The men who formed the retinue of the knight (called 'servientes,' the original of our 'sergeant'), took the name of gens d'armes. The King divided his cavalry into 15 companies of 100 lances each, the term 'lance' meaning a squad; thus each company numbered 600 mounted men, making an aggregate of 9000. There were also volunteers attached to the gendarmerie on probation. Each homme d'armes had four horses, including his war charger, mounted only when battle was immiGERMAN REITER, 1640. nent. Thus, it is said, originated the expression, 'mounting one's high horse,' or showing a readiness to quarrel.

The towns and provinces, in return for the protection afforded by this force, bore the expense of their support. In 1559 the last vestige of the romance of war (the tournament) was destroyed by the death of King Henry II. of France, who, while engaged in a joust, was unhorsed and accidentally pierced through the visor of his helmet by a lance in the hands of a courtier, Count Gabriel de Montgomerie.

About the beginning of the Fifteenth Century we find mention for the first time of certain kinds of cavalry whose names are familiar at the present day. In Hungary the 'hussars,' so called from the Hungarian word húsz (signifying twenty) and ár (pay), were organized under a State ordinance requiring every twentieth man to take the field. They were armed with a sword (sometimes two), rode small horses with light saddles, were well disciplined, and very mobile in battle. Mahan well describes the type: "The dashing, bold hussar, that epitome of military impudence and recklessness at the tavern, should present these qualities in a sublimated form on the field. Regardless of fatigue and danger, his imagination should never present to itself an obstacle as insurmountable." The hussar has always been noted for extravagance in dress, but the Polish hussars at the time of the wars with Charles XII. were unique. "They march," says Voltaire, "attended by several valets, who lead their horses, which are adorned with bridles, plaited with silver and silver nails, embroidered saddles, saddle bows and stirrups gilt, and sometimes made of massive silver."

Long before this we hear of 'carabineers' (from the Arab word Karab). They were armed

with an arquebuse, a pistol, and a long, straight sword; they were drilled to load at full speed and to fire from the saddle. Placed on the flanks

restrained from such excesses as were common in those times. Captain Dalgetty's view, "A cavalier of honor is free to take any part which he may may find most convenient for his own peculiar," was the popular one. The Austrian

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"CHANFRAINS"-HORSE-HEAD ARMOR.

of squadrons, they prepared the way for the charge by their effective fire. In England they were called 'hargobusiers.' They occasionally took up infantrymen behind them. This use

of horsemen to move infantry rapidly in an emergency_originated the term 'dragoons.' See MOUNTED INFANTRY.

CAVALRY IN MODERN TIMES.

The War of Independence of the Netherlands (1568-1609) marked the beginning of a new era in cavalry history. Maurice of Nassau drilled his German mercenaries, more lightly armed and mounted than their Spanish opponents, to form in two or three lines, to move rapidly, and to make direct charges, after first firing their pistols at the enemy. He it was who first organized regiments of 1000 men, raised by selected recruiting officers who became the colonels; their commissioned subordinates were called lieutenantcolonels and majors, as in the armies of to-day.

The great improvement begun by Prince Maurice was continued and enlarged by the great soldier Gustavus Adolphus. He made important changes in the discipline, armament, pay, clothing, and training of his cavalry. They were formed in four ranks, of which one was held in reserve during a charge. Unlike their foes, they were frequently paid, and to a certain extent

SADDLES OF MEDIEVAL CAVALRY.

cavalry was heavier than the Swedish, with a more massive formation (eight to ten ranks), and thus his mounted troops contributed greatly

ORNAMENTED CAVALRY STIRRUPS.

to Gustavus's successes at the battles of Leipzig (1631) and Lützen (1632). They became mod

EARLY CAVALRY PISTOL, “THE DRAGON."

els for all European States, and Louis XIII. of France still further reduced cavalry formation

denly a French battery, hitherto concealed by an accident of ground, fired a parting shot at the head of the Austrian column which caused great confusion. General Kellermann, at the head of 200 sabres, seized the opportunity to fall upon the enemy's exposed flank, rode over the leading battalions, and produced a panic in the entire allied force, which fled from the field, leaving behind them their commander and 2000 prisoners. But if less fortunate in operations en masse, Napoleon surpassed Frederick in the use of cavalry on outpost and scouting duty. His troopers were ubiquitous as the 'eyes and ears' of his army. While Napoleon's cavalry was taught to place its principal dependence upon the sabre, he authorized, on occasions, the use of firearms. At Eylau (1807) the colonel of the Twentieth Chasseurs à Cheval observed a large force of cavalry advancing toward his position, moving slowly through the snow and heavy ground. Ordering his officers into the ranks and his men to advance carbine,' the colonel waited until the enemy's leading files were within six paces, when the command to fire was given with great effect. Although in the mêlée which ensued the French regiment lost 100 men, the Russians left nearly 300 on the spot from which they were forced to retire. (Wagner.) At Somo Sierra in the Peninsular campaign (1808) the Third Polish light cavalry charged directly in front of an intrenched battery strongly supported by infantry guarding a mountain defile, drove back the Spaniards and captured. 16 guns. This desperate but successful feat was accomplished by General Montbrun, who led the regiment in person.

In Spain, at that time, there were many gallant actions. Under Wellington the cavalry of the German legion attached to the British army was conspicuous, making, on one occasion, according to the French general, Foy, "the most daring charge during the Peninsular War." At Garcia Hernandez (1812), when the French army was retreating, three squadrons of Bock's German brigade, which had been ordered to charge the cavalry of the enemy's rear guard, unexpectedly encountered three battalions of infantry formed in squares. Without hesitation, Bock's cavalry charged these squares, successfully penetrating them at places where wounded. horses or falling men had caused a gap in the side of the square. The vigor and skill with which this small force (about 110 sabres) was handled resulted in the dispersion of the French infantry with a loss of 1 general officer and 1000 men; the German casualties were 4 officers, 48 men, 67 horses killed, and 2 officers, 56 men, 46 horses wounded, with 6 men missing.

Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign demoralized his cavalry. The intense cold, deep snows, want of food for horses and men, and ceaseless encounters with the Cossacks reduced the French horsemen in numbers and spirit. General Morand says of the Cossacks: "These natural horsemen are not organized in divisions, pay no attention to regular alignments, rest their feet in great stirrups which serve as supports when using their weapons; trained to pass at once from the halt to the gallop and from the gallop to the halt, their horses second their dexterity. These ungroomed animals of irregular size, supplied by their riders, possess wonderful endurance, are guided entirely by the snaffle, and

easily accomplish 100 verst (66 miles) in twentyfour hours." Their method of attack in Napoleon's time called 'the lava,' consisted of a charge in small, irregular groups—in open or close order as circumstances seemed to require these groups' hovering around the enemy until launched at a vulnerable point. Since then the close association with the regular system of the Russian Army has caused the lava to degenerate into a simple 'charge as foragers.' some respects the Cossack methods are not unlike those of the North American Indian of the plains.

In

The Crimean War was remarkable for the cavalry errors committed. Neither the Russians nor the Allies employed the arm effectively either for reconnaissance, outpost, or in large bodies on the battlefield. The most unfortunate instance of this nature, the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava (1854)-where gallant men were sacrificed through the folly of their commander and the ambiguity of an order, gained undying fame by a poet's pen. On the same field the heavy cavalrymen of both armies met-the one body at a slow pace, the other at a halt-with negative results. From the experience of the Crimea and that of the Italian campaign of 1859 doubts arose as to the value of cavalry in future operations, Austria making a decided reduction in that arm. "The awakening from this transient period of theory came from a nation not trained to arms, and it is to the American Civil War that we owe the revival that took place in the use of the cavalry arm." (Liddell.)

So

The experience gained in the Civil War in the United States (1861-65) laid the foundation for renewed confidence in the value of mounted troops and led to many changes in the armament, equipment, and instruction of European cavalry. At the outset the aged General Scott and the new commander of the United States forces (McClellan) did not expect that a large mounted force would be needed. In the North and West people were not accustomed to the saddle; in the South the majority were good horsemen. it happened that the Confederates, at the beginning of the war, displayed greater mobility in their operations, screened them effectually, and were better informed as to the enemy's movements than were the Union troops. The lesson of the first year taught the United States Government the importance of a due proportion of cavalry in the composition of its armies, and by the spring of 1863 the Union cavalry were able to cope with the Southern horse. The mounted service of the United States in 1861 consisted of two regiments of dragoons, one of mounted rifles, and two of cavalry, variously armed, but later in that year another regiment was created and all were armed alike, with carbine, pistol, and sabre, were taught to fight as 'dragoons,' and were denominated 'cavalry.' On this basis was organized a great body of volunteer horsemen, eventually aggregating 300,000. The Confederates created their mounted force principally from the many mounted militia regiments and the thousands of good horsemen with which their section of the country abounded; these were officered in many cases by ex-officers of the United States Army and by young planters. For want of carbines and sabres many Southern organizations were armed with rifles, but as a rule with