the species by which the different varieties of cinchona bark known in commerce are produced. The common commercial names are derived partly from the color of the barks, and partly from the districts in which they are produced, or the ports where they are shipped. It appears that calisaya bark, also called 'royal' or 'yellow' bark, one of the very best kinds-mostly shipped from Arica, Chile-is chiefly the produce of Cinchona calisaya, a large tree growing in hot mountain valleys of Bolivia and the south of Peru. Other kinds met with in the trade are crown, loxa, or pale bark, derived from Cinchona officinalis and its varieties; red bark, from Cinchona succirubra; Colombia bark, from Cinchona cordifolia; and pale bark from Cinchona nitida and Cinchona micrantha. Yellow bark is also produced by the variety ledgeriana of Cinchona calisaya. The varieties of this and Cinchona succirubra are the ones most met with in cultivation.

In South America the cutting and peeling of cinchona-trees is carried on by Indians, who go in parties, and pursue their occupation during the whole of the dry season. The trees were formerly felled as near the root as possible, that none of the bark might be lost. The bark, being stripped off, is carefully dried; the quilled form of the thinner bark is acquired in drying. The bark is made up into packages of various sizes, but averaging about 150 pounds weight, closely wrapped in woolen cloth, and afterwards in hides, to be conveyed on mules' backs to the towns. These packages are called 'drums' or 'seroons,' and are exported in this form. At present less wasteful methods are employed, and the bark is removed so as not to destroy the trees. Strips of bark are sometimes removed and the wounds covered with moss, thus increasing the total yield.

A number of spurious kinds of Peruvian or cinchona bark are either sent into the market separately, or are employed for adulterating the genuine kinds. They are bitter barks, and have, in greater or less degree, febrifugal properties, but are chemically and medicinally very different from true cinchona bark. They are produced by trees of genera very closely allied to Cinchona. While cinchona-trees have been becoming every year more scarce in their native regions, little attempt has been made to cultivate them there, notwithstanding the constantly increasing demand for the bark: the Dutch have recently made extensive plantations of them in Java, and the same has been done in British India, from seeds and plants obtained from South America by Mr.

Clements Markham. Cinchona is also cultivated

extensively in Jamaica, Japan, Ceylon, etc. For the cultivation of cinchona a good soil and open subsoil are necessary. It seems to thrive best at a considerable elevation above the sea, where the temperature ranges from 55° to 65° F. It will endure slight frost or a temperature of 100° where shaded. In a wild state, the bark often contains 5 per cent. or less of total alkaloids; but in cultivation, where only part of the bark is removed and the denuded area covered and kept moist, as much as 25 per cent. of alkaloids has been obtained, nearly half of which was genuine.

The Indians of Peru call the cinchona-trees 'kina,' whence are derived the names 'china,' 'quina,' etc. It is not certain that they knew

VOL. IV. 48.

the use of the bark before the arrival of the Spaniards. It is a medicine of great value in the cure of intermittent fevers (q.v.), etc., and diseases attended with much febrile debility; also in certain forms of neuralgia (q.v.), and other diseases of the nervous system. It seems to have been first imported into Europe in 1639 by the Countess del Cinchón or Chinchón, the wife of the Viceroy of Peru, who had been cured of an obstinate intermittent fever by means of it. The Jesuit missionaries afterwards carried it to Rome, and distributed it through their several stations, and thus it acquired the name of 'Jesuits' bark.' Cardinal Juan de Lugo having been particularly active in recommending and distributing it, it was also known as 'Cardinal de Lugo's powder.' It attained great celebrity in Spain and Italy, being sold at high prices by the Jesuits, by whom it was lauded as an infallible remedy. Its mode of action not being well understood, and the cases to which it was applicable not well defined, it seems, in the first instance, to have been employed without due discrimination, and to have fallen very much into the hands of empirics. Falling into disuse in Europe, it was again brought into notice by Sir Robert Talbor, or Talbot, an Englishman, who brought it to England in 1671, and acquired great celebrity through the cure of intermittent fevers by means of it, and from whom Louis XIV. purchased his secret in 1682. A pound of bark at that time cost 100 louis d'or. Talbor seems to have had the acuteness to dis cern and systematically to avail himself of the healing virtues of the neglected Jesuits' bark, which he mixed with other substances, so as to conceal its taste and odor. Soon afterwards, both Morton and Sydenham, the most celebrated English physicians of their time, adopted the new remedy; and its use, from this period, gradually extended, both in England and France. As it came into general use, it became a most important article of export from Peru; but for a long time the value of the bark to be procured in New Granada (now Columbia) remained unknown, and in order to maintain a commercial monopoly, extraordinary methods were employed to prevent it from becoming known at a comparatively recent period of Spanish rule in America. The discovery of the alkaloids on which its properties chiefly depend was made early in the nineteenth century.

The chief active principles are the alkaloids, quinine, cinchonine (qq.v.), quinidine, cinchonidine, and quinamine. The relative proportion of the different alkaloids varies widely with the kind of bark and its age when taken from the tree. Some species produce a large amount of quinine and little of other alkaloids, and vice

versa. Cinchona bark itself has in later times fallen into comparative disuse, owing to the discovery of the alkaloid quinine, which is now extensively in use in medicine in the form of sulphate or disulphate of quinine, and is given in doses of from 1 to 20 grains in almost all the cases to which the bark was supposed to be applicable. For notes on the production, cultivation, etc., of cinchona. consult: Mueller, ExtraTropical Plants (Melbourne, 1895); Markham, Peruvian Bark (London, 1880); King, Manual of Cinchona Cultivation in India (Calcutta, 1876); Lambert, Description of the Genus Cin

CINCHONIDINE, sin-könʼI-din. See CINCHO

NINE.

CINCHONINE, sin'kô-nin (from Neo-Lat. cinchona), CHN2O. An alkaloid occurring in cinchona bark along with quinine, and having much the same, though by far less powerful, physiological effects as quinine. It is a white crystalline substance, having neither odor nor taste, but leaving a bitter after-taste in the mouth. It is insoluble in water, and but sparingly soluble in alcohol, ether, or chloroform. The sulphate of cinchonine, (CHN2O) H2SO, + 2H,O, is a crystalline substance with a strong bitter taste, and is moderately soluble in water, alcohol, and chloroform.

The alkaloid cinchonidine, occurring together with cinchonine, has the same chemical composition as the latter, though a much more pronounced physiological effect. It differs from cinchonine in certain of its physical properties, and its sulphate, (CHNO) H2SO, + 3H2O, is much less soluble in alcohol, and practically insoluble in chloroform. See ALKALOIDS.

CINCINNATI, sinʼsin-nä'tĬ. The capital of Hamilton County, Ohio; second city in the State, and tenth in the United States in population, on the right bank of the Ohio River, in latitude 39° 6' 30" N. and longitude 84° 26′ W. (Map: Ohio, A 7). It lies 116 miles southwest of Columbus, 270 miles southeast of Chicago, and 764 miles from New York, and 830 miles by rail from

New Orleans.

The city is built upon two plateaus, surrounded by a semicircle of hills which approach close to the river above and below the inclosed plain, the ends of the semicircle being only two and a half miles apart. The first plateau is 65 feet above low-water mark, and

rises on the north side 400 feet above the Ohio

River, which forms here a grand curve from east to west; the second is elevated 50 to 100 feet higher, some points reaching an elevation of 900 feet above sea-level. The summits of the hills Mount Adams, Mount Auburn, Fairview Heights, Price's Hill, and College Hill-accessible by roads and by inclined plane railways, command superb views of the river, of the Kentucky shore, and of the rolling country surrounding the city. Pierced by ravines, these thickly wooded highlands give a picturesque aspect to the city, and are covered with the beautiful residences of wealthy citizens; the Clifton, Avondale, and East Walnut Hills districts being especially noteworthy for their scenic beauty and magnificent homes. The climate is very favorable. The average temperature in summer is 75.24°; in winter, 34.28°; the yearly mean being 54.72°.

Cincinnati covers an area of 38 square miles, and has a river-frontage extending nearly 14 miles. The brick and the freestone found near at hand, and the blue limestone quarried within the city limits, are largely used for building material. The streets and avenues, averaging 66 feet in width, cross each other at right angles in the old portion of the city, and conform to the surface conditions in the new. A public landing or levee extends along. Front Street, the sloping shore being paved and lined with floating docks and wharf-boats. As three terraces constituting the ascent rise one above another from the riverlevel, the streets become more irregular, and the

lowest or 'bottom' streets, sometimes inundated by unusual floods of the Ohio River, are mainly devoted to manufacturing and wholesale trades; they also contain the few remaining slum quarters. The central and business portion of the city, with numerous fine stores, is compactly built, almost the whole plain being filled up, several former villages, of which Cumminsville was the most important, having been absorbed by the extending city. There are more than twenty street-railway lines, all of which conVerge at and encircle Fountain Square-mentioned below-as a common starting and terminal point. The city has 386 miles of paved and 224 miles of unpaved streets, 93 miles being of macadam, 70 miles of cobble-stones, 47 miles of granite and Belgian blocks, and 23 miles of asphalt. There are 220 miles of sewers, and the street railways aggregate 206 miles.

Beautiful suburban villages cluster about Cincinnati, and are rendered easily accessible by the street railroads. Covington, Newport, Dayton, Ludlow, Bellevue, Linwood, Mount Lookout, Norwood, Oakley (with its well-known race-course), and Riverside are some of these near-by towns. Their dwellings are large and costly, and are surrounded by ample grounds. Fort Thomas, a picturesque hill-station behind Newport, Ky., and one of the most important depots of the United States Army, is forty minutes distant by electric car. The large wire suspension bridge across the Ohio, completed in 1867, at a cost of $1,800,000, connects with Covington, Ky. It is 2252 feet long, with a span of 1057 feet, and 106 feet above low-water mark. Two bridges of wrought iron, resting upon stone piers, connect Cincinnati with Newport, Ky. A fourth bridge, uniting the city with Ludlow, Ky., is that of the Cincinnati Southern Railroad. It cost $3,348,675, and has one of the longest truss spans in the world. A fifth bridge, the Chesapeake and Ohio, connecting Cincinnati with West Covington, is a cantilever. Two unimportant ferries also connect Cincinnati with Covington and Ludlow. edifices may be mentioned the United States BUILDINGS. Among the fine and substantial Government Building, which contains the PostOffice, Custom-House, court rooms, and various offices, erected at a cost of $5,000,000. It is of sawed freestone, three stories high, in the Roman-Corinthian style. The City Hall is equally fine, and much larger. The County CourtHouse, with the jail, occupies a whole square; it is built in the Romanesque style, and is nearly fire-proof. The City Hospital, consisting of eight distinct buildings arranged around a central court, occupies a square of nearly four

acres

The

and accommodates 700 patients. Chamber of Commerce, Masonic Temple, and Odd Fellows' Hall are grand and massive buildings. The City Workhouse has cells for 700 prisoners, with workshops and grounds for their employment. Longview Asylum for the Insane, at Carthage, 10 miles from the city, is of brick, in the Italian Renaissance style. Saint Peter's Roman Catholic Cathedral is an immense structure, in the Grecian style, with a stone spire 224 feet high. The altar-piece is Murillo's original "Saint Peter Delivered." Saint Paul's Methodist Episcopal Church, the First and Second Presbyterian churches, Saint Paul's Protestant Episcopal Pro-Cathedral, the Jewish Synagogue,