community. The numbers now began to increase, and Stephen was enabled within two years to found four other abbeys-La Ferté, Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond. Fifty years later the Order numbered 343 abbeys, and by the middle of the fourteenth century more than 700-in France, Germany, England, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Norway, and Sweden. The austere and holy life of the early Cistercians won them universal respect, and a vast influence throughout Christendom. They produced few great writers, but were indefatigable in collecting and copying manuscripts for their libraries. Practical matters, however, were not neglected in their zeal for literature and art; in England the Order was a main cause of the growth of the wool industry. After this Golden Age followed a period of decline. The rule was less strictly observed; many disorders crept in toward the end of the fourteenth century, and by the middle of the fifteenth the Order had split into several congregations. The growth of luxury, the spread of the mendicant orders, and the practice of granting abbeys in commendam (see ABBOT) all contrib uted to its decay. Among the more noteworthy

offshoots of the Cistercians were the Feuillants and the Trappists (q.v.), and the Nuns of Port Royal in France. Before the Reformation, England had 75 Cistercian monasteries and 25 nunneries. Among the English abbeys were Furness, Fountains, Woburn, Tintern, Kirkstall, and Rievaulx. Between internal decline and the hostility of various governments in modern times, the great majority of the Cistercian houses have ceased to exist. They are represented by a few in Belgium and Austria, one in England (at Mount Saint Bernard, near Leicester), and two in Ireland.

The influence of the Cistercians in art is sufficiently important to call for a separate treatment. When Saint Bernard directed the policy of the Order, he used it to carry out, among other things, his ideas as to the function of the fine arts. He wrote and preached against the current artistic extravagances in the construction, decoration, and furnishing of churches. As the Order spread throughout the world during the twelfth century it carried with it these ideas, some of which (for example, the invention of a single low, wooden bell-tower) were even expressed in the constitutions of the Order. Cistercian artists, therefore, were architects, and of the constructive rather than of the decorative school.

This is the only Order that can boast of having consistently carried out an æsthetic ideal and had a style of its own, similar in whatever land it appears, and little affected by local art. Every where the Order exercised a strong influence. The Dominicans and Franciscans borrowed from it many of the peculiar traits of their churches. The Cistercians adopted at once the vaulted type, and were the pioneers of the Gothic revolution, carrying its germs, in Burgundian form, to nearly every civilized country. It was not until the middle of the thirteenth century that the Order had largely yielded its simplicity to the advance of the rich and harmonious style of cathedral Gothic, though before that it had begun to change in minor ways, as in allowing the use of stone in place of wooden towers. When the special mission of the Order was finished, its monasteries, being in remote country districts, were often allowed to go to ruin; but many of the

most notable architectural monuments of its golden period remain worthy to stand by the side of the great cathedrals. Such are the abbeys of Maulbronn, Heiligen-kreuz, Lilienfeld, and Tischnowitz, in Germany and Austria; of Chiaravalle, Fossanova, and Casamari, in Italy; of Pontigny in France; Batalha in Portugal; Veruela in Spain, and those named above in England.

For the history of the Order, consult: Janauschek, Origines Cistercienses (Vienna, 1877); Guignard, Monuments primitifs de la règle cistercienne (Dijon, 1877); D'Arbois de Jubainville and Pigeotte, Etude sur l'état intérieur des abbayes cisterciennes aux XII. et XIII. siècles (Paris, 1858). For the architectural side of the subject: Sharpe, The Architecture of the Cistercians (London, 1874); Eulart, Origines de l'archi tecture gothique en Italie (Paris, 1893); and the works named in the article on MONASTIC ᎪᎡᎢ.

CISTERN (OF. cisterne, Lat. cisterna, reservoir, from cista, chest). An artificial reservoir, usually of masonry or woodwork, and located either above the ground, or, more commonly, in an excavation. In places where the supply of water is intermittent, or where rain-water is used, every house requires a cistern, tank, or other receptacle for storing water. For comparatively large supplies of water, such as are required for manufacturing and railway service, receptacles for storing water are now almost universally termed reservoirs, tanks, or stand pipes. See WATER-WORKS; DAMS AND RESERVOIRS.

CITADEL (Fr. citadelle, It. cittadella, dim. of città, a city, especially a fortified city). The fortified stronghold of a city or town; hence also the strongest part of any extensive fortification. Its function in ancient systems of fortification was akin to that of the donjon or keep of a castle; it provided a refuge of last resort for a garrison driven from the other works, in which they might hold out for a while longer against the enemy while awaiting succor from the outside. The mediaval citadel was accordingly situated, as a rule, at the most commanding and externally inaccessible angle of the city walls, with one gate opening toward the town and a sallyport toward the country. Modern warfare, with its long-range artillery and external lines of defense by earthworks and masked batteries, has rendered these old-time devices obsolete.

(See

The term citadel is applied not only as above, to special portions of a system of fortifications, but also to any commanding and strongly defended castle or fort dominating a town, at once for defense and refuge. The acropoles of ancient Greece (as at Athens, Corinth, Tiryns, etc.) constituted the citadels of those towns. ACROPOLIS.) Edinburgh Castle, the ruined citadel-castle of Smyrna, and the historic fortress of Antonia at Jerusalem (not extant) are examples of citadel-castles in this sense. The fortified prison of the Bastille, in Paris, deemed impregnable until the Revolution of 1789, was the citadel of that royal capital. The fortified heights of Quebec are still called the Citadel. See CASTLE.

CITATION (ML. citatio, from Lat. citare, to call). A mandate of a court of competent jurisdiction, commanding the person or persons named therein to appear in that court for some purpose specified briefly in the citation.

It was originally the process by which a suit was begun in the English ecclesiastical courts, which formerly had jurisdiction over orphans, decedents' estates, and divorce proceedings.

In the United States the term is most frequently used to designate the process of surrogates', orphans', probate, and admiralty courts, commanding persons interested in a proceeding in such court to appear and show cause or reasons, if they have any, why the relief demanded by the party bringing the proceeding should not be granted, or for the purpose of receiving instructions, to make an explanation, or to show cause why they should not be punished for disobedience of some order, rule, or decree of the court.

The failure to obey a personal citation-that is, one for instructions or discipline-may render a party guilty of contempt of court; but if it is merely formal, notifying a party to appear and protect any interest he may have in a certain proceeding, appearance is not insisted upon, and the party merely waives any right to object to the proceedings by failure to appear.

In Scotch practice, the act of an officer in summoning a party to an action under a proper warrant is called citation. The term is also employed in the civil law.

The word 'citation' is also used in law in the sense of the naming of an authority; as, the citation of a reported case in a legal text-book. See SUMMONS; SUBPOENA; PROCEDURE.

CITHARON (Lat., from Gk. Kapor, Kithairōn). A mountain range in Greece, between Boeotia and Attica. The highest peak is a little over 4600 feet above sea-level. It is now called Elatea-i.e. 'Pine Mountain.'

CITH'ARA (Lat., from Gk. kápa, kithara, a kind of lyre or lute). A musical instrument,

NUBIAN KISSAR, OR CITHARA.

somewhat resembling a guitar, much used by the Greeks and Romans, who attributed its invention to Apollo. In some respects it resembled a lyre;

but it was played resting on the knees, whereas the lyre stood upright between them. The cithara had a hollow body, made sometimes of tortoiseshell, from which two horns branched upward, supporting a cross-piece. The strings were stretched from this cross-piece to the body of the instrument, where they were supported by a bridge. Sounds on the lower strings were produced by the fingers of the left hand; on the upper, by the plectrum. From the cithara were derived the medieval cither, and our modern zither and guitar. The modern instrument most nearly allied to the cithara is the Nubian kissar. See LYRE.

CITIES OF THE PLAIN. An appellation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, which were situated in the plain about the Jordan, and were destroyed because of their wickedness.

CITIZEN (OF. citeain, from Lat. civitas, state, from civis, citizen). In its most general sense, an individual member of a political society, or State; one who owes allegiance to, and may lawfully demand protection from, the Government, and thus equivalent to subject. The original meaning of the term, as denoting a person endowed with certain rights and privileges as a native or naturalized resident in a city, a free and lawful member of a civic community, has in America become its secondary signification; its Roman meaning, as a member of a free, selfgoverning commonwealth, having superseded it. It is in this latter sense, also, that it is employed in the French and Swiss republics. In England, however, it is properly employed only in the narrower sense, as equivalent to municeps; and this is its meaning, generally, in the law of tion of the citizen to the State is expressed by modern monarchical States, in which the relathe term 'subject.' In Imperial, as well as in Republican Rome, the State continued legally to be regarded as a commonwealth of free citizens, bound together by the tie of common membership of one body. The modern relation of sovereign and subject, which has been substituted for that of commonwealth and citizen, is of feudal origin, the oath of allegiance, on which it is based, being in its essence the creation of the feudal obligation of fidelity and obedience due from a vassal to his lord.

It will be observed, then, that the more general sense of the term citizen-that in which it is employed in the United States and in other modern republics-is more closely in accordance with the original and historical meaning of the word. In the free republics of classical antiquity, the term 'citizen' signified, not a resident of a town, but a free, governing member of the State, just as the term civitas, from which we derive our city,' signified, not merely a local municipality (urbs), but the State at large. The confusion is doubtless due to the importance of the rôle which several of these city-states-as Athens and Rome-have played in history. In the ancient cities not all the inhabitants, perhaps not all the free inhabitants, were citizens, but these constituted a class entitled to special privileges and immunities; and as these cities formed the type of free government in the ancient world, the term 'citizen' soon came to mean one whe possessed full civil and political rights. The Greek idea of citizenship is expressed by Aristotle, who declared a citizen to be one to whom

belonged the right of participating both in the deliberative or legislative and the judicial functions of the political community of which he was a member. The right was jealously guarded, and was rarely conferred on those of foreign birth. In Rome there were two classes of citizens -one that had a share in the sovereign power, i.e. were capable of attaining to the highest offices of State; the other possessing only the private rights of citizenship. These, however, included the privilege of voting in the public assembly. There, as in the American Republic and in some other modern States, citizenship, though usually acquired by birth, might be attained by naturalization, or special grant of the State. In the later period of the Empire, Roman citizenship, so highly valued under the Republic and early Empire, largely lost its distinctive character, in consequence of the gradual disappearance of the political and legal privileges which formerly attended it. In the third century of our era, the constitution, or decree, of Caracalla extended it to all persons, except slaves, freedmen, and their children, under the sway of the Empire, and Justinian completed the work by extending it to all free persons.

In the United States, as has been said before, the word 'citizen' is used in its broadest sense, as defined at the beginning of this article. Perhaps as simple a statement as any is that made by an Attorney-General of the United States, when he said: "The phrase, 'a citizen of the United States,' without addition or qualification, means neither more nor less than a member of the nation." The same person may be, and usually is, a citizen of the United States and of the State in which he resides. The two things are not, how ever, necessarily coexistent; for an inhabitant of one of the Territories or of the District of Columbia is a citizen of the United States without being a citizen of a single State, and there are conceivable legal conditions which might make a man a citizen of a certain State without being a citizen of the United States. The idea of citizenship does not necessarily involve the right of voting or of other participation in political activity, as in the Greek conception of the term, for women and minors may be citizens, although excluded from all direct political activity. The question of race does not now enter into the definition of citizenship; previous to the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, this could not be stated, as the possession of negro blood was before that distinctly a disqualification from citizenship; yet even before the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment this position was doubted. The decisions denying the citizenship of Indians were founded not on race distinction, but on the existence of tribal relations, which were inconsistent with full allegiance to the United States. A citizen of the United States may be either native-born or naturalized. Among native-born citizens are included all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power, including even the children of alien parents, unless the latter be ambassadors of a foreign power, but excluding untaxed Indians still in tribal relations; children born in foreign countries of fathers who were citizens of the United States at the time of birth; freedmen not recognized as citizens before the Act of Emancipation, but so recognized by that act and by the ensuing Fourteenth Amendment; Indians born in

the country who have abandoned tribal relations, have entered into civilized life, and have by paying taxes recognized their allegiance; and Indians who have accepted allotments of land in severalty under the Dawes Act of 1887.

We have already said that minors and women are citizens in the meaning of the term found in the United States Constitution; it is also true that wives of citizens who were neither born in the country nor naturalized become citizens by their marriage, if they were not legally incapable of naturalization. A naturalized citizen is one who was originally a subject of a foreign State, but who has been received by the United States as a citizen under the acts of Congress bearing on that subject. Theoretically, treatises on international law have always doubted the power of the subject to throw off his natural allegiance, and of a State to accept the allegiance of the subject of a foreign country. But these rights have been exercised, in point of fact, very generally; and the right of naturalization is now recognized by treaties between the United States and many foreign powers. A person who is naturalized is admitted to all the privileges and duties of citizenship; and his naturalization includes that of any minor children resident at the time in the United States.

In regard to the dual citizenship to the general Government and to the State in which a person resides, it may be said that a citizen of the United States owes his first and highest allegiance to the general Government. The relations of the two forms of allegiance have been defined as follows by the United States Supreme Court: "There is in our political system a government of each of the several States, and a government of the United States. Each is distinct from the others, and has citizens of its own, who owe it allegiance, and whose rights, within its jurisdiction, it must protect. The same person may be at the same time a citizen of the United States and a citizen of a State; but his rights of citizenship under one of these governments will be different from those he has under the other. The Government of the United States, although it is, within the scope of its powers, supreme and beyond the States, can neither grant nor secure to its citizens rights or privileges which are not expressly or by implication placed under its jurisdiction. All that cannot be so granted or secured are left to the exclusive protection of the States. A citizen of the United States owes his first and highest allegiance to the general Government, and not to the State of which he may be a citizen. A declaration of war, or the commencement of actual hostilities, between two States, ipso facto, dissolves the partnership relation existing between citizens of the hostile States." The word 'citizen' is often loosely used as synonymous with resident or inhabitant. Where a law passed for a particular purpose makes such loose use of the word, and where no question of constitutional rights is involved, the courts will interpret the word according to the intention of the lawmakers. See ALIEN; ALLEGIANCE; NATURALIZATION; SUBJECT; and the authorities referred to under those

titles.

CITIZEN, THE. A comedy by Arthur Murphy, performed July 2, 1761, at the Drury Lane Theatre, London, and printed (as a farce) in 1763. It is founded in part on Destouches's Fausse Agnès.