essentially new has since been added. At least, according to Todhunter, "The splendid analysis which Laplace supplied, adorned but did not really alter the theory which started from the creative hands of Clairaut." In the field of astronomy he solved the famous problem of three bodies in the case of the sun, earth, and moon; explained the motion of the lunar apsides, and constructed lunar tables, later supplanted by those of Mayer. Clairaut also predicted the return of Halley's comet for about April 15, 1759; although the degree of accuracy was remarkable for the time, and the approximation closer than Halley's, it failed by a month, and subjected its author to the ridicule of his rival, D'Alembert. During his last years fondness for society and desire for luxury hindered his scientific work. His leading works (published in Paris) are: Recherches sur les courbes à double courbure (1731); Traité de la figure de la terre (1743 and 1808); Théorie de la lune (1752 and 1765); Eléments de géométrie (1741 and 1765); Eléments d'algèbre (1746 and 1760); and Théorie du mouvement des comètes (1760). CLAIRIN, klâ'rǎN', VICTOR GEORGE (1843-). A French painter, who was born in Paris. He was a pupil of Picot and Pils, and afterwards traveled in Spain and Morocco with Henri Regnault. Many of his works are Spanish historical scenes, and in this manner "Après la victoire" (1885) is notable. His portraits include those of Mounet-Sully as Hamlet (1889), Sarah Bernhardt, and Madame Krauss. He also executed

a number of decorative paintings in the Opera House, the Bourse, and in the Salle-des-jeux at Monte Carlo. His work is fine in color, and his decorative subjects effective, and executed with much freedom.

CLAIRON, klâʼrôn', MLLE. (1723-1803). A French actress, whose real name was Claire Josèphe Hippolyte Legris de Latude. She was born near Condé, in Flanders, and had played for several years at Rouen, Lille, and elsewhere before she appeared at the Paris Opéra, and a little later, in September, 1743, made her first appearance at the Théâtre Français. This was in Phedre. Her success was immediate and brilliant, and she became the rival of Mlle. Dumesnil, then at the height of her popularity. Mlle. Clairon was of small stature, but with a beauty which was both vivacious and dignified, and she was gifted with a remarkable voice. She and her colleague Lekain were known as innovators, for endeavoring to bring about a more rational mode of costuming than was at that time conventional upon the stage. Some of her greatest achievements were in the Zelmire and Le siège de Calais of Belloy, and in the tragedies of Voltaire, Zulime, Sémiramis, Olympie, Tancrède, Oreste, and L'Orphelin de la Chine.

In 1765, as the result of a scandal of which she was a victim, she abandoned the stage. For a number of years she resided at the Court of Ansbach. The Mémoires d'Hippolyte Clairon et réflexions sur la déclamation théâtrale, which she wrote in old age, were published in 1799, in Paris, where she died, four years later.

CLAIRVAUX, klâr'vo' (from Lat. clara vallis, fair vale: from clarus, clear, and vallis, valley). A village in the Department of Aube, France, about 10 miles above Bar-sur-Aube, on the left bank of the river Aube (Map: France,

L 3). It is the site of the famous Cistercian abbey (Clara Vallis) founded in 1115 by Saint Bernard, who presided over it until his death, in 1153, when he was buried in the church. The abbey was suppressed during the Revolution, and the extensive buildings are now used as a penitentiary.

CLAIRVILLE, klår'vēl', LOUIS FRANÇOIS (1811-79). A French dramatic author, whose real name was Nicolaie. He was born January in youth had a varied practical experience with 28, 1811, in Lyons, but went early to Paris, and theatrical life. About 1837 he began his long series of dramatic productions, which he wrote generally in collaboration with other playwrights. Some of the more noted are the comedies La propriété, c'est le vol (1848), Les tentations d'Antoinette (1850), Quinze heures de fiacre (1867), and the librettos to the operas Daphnis et Chloë, by Offenbach (1849), and La fille de Madame Angot, by Lecocq (1873).

CLAIRVOY'ANCE (Fr. clairvoyant, clearseeing, from clair, Lat. clarus, clear + voir, Lat. videre, to see). An alleged ability to see, in a trance state, objects and occurrences which are not discernible in the normal state. Belief in the clairvoyance of the hypnotic trance is as old as history. Socrates, Apollonius, Cicero, Pliny, Tertullian, all furnish records of the prophetic dreams and utterances of clairvoyants. In later times the visions of Swedenborg (q.v.) and Davis have become widely known. of hypnosis, in which clairvoyance is said to

Of the existence of the somnambulistic state

occur

most often, there can be no doubt. Suggestion (q.v.), whether it be from without (the words, passes, or other artifices of an operator), or from within (auto-suggestion, q.v.), suffices in most people to induce this state. Certain other conditions (fasting, drugs, disease, general emotional excitability) may induce an apparently spontaneous and indeterminate appearance of somnambulism. Every one is familiar with the epidemic catalepsy of the religious revival, best exhibited, perhaps, by the negroes of the South.

As to the existence of clairvoyance in somnambulism, opinions are divided. Some, with Tuttle, consider clairvoyance "an inherent faculty, a foregleam in this life of the next spiritual life." They esteem the clairvoyant as a peculiarly sensitive person, whose mind is, for the time being, directed by some departed spirit, and whose lips speak with an intelligence not their own. Others consider that the clairvoy ant is able, without such direction, to see objects and occurrences beyond the ken of normal vision. Still others take a middle ground, and consider that the results are to be explained by telepathic communication, not between departed spirits and the medium, but between the minds of one or more living persons and that of the 'percipient' (télépathie-à-trois). Finally, many scientific men absolutely deny the presence of supernormal agencies. Consult: Flournoy, From India to the Planet Mars (Paris, 1900); Podmore, Apparitions and Thought Transference (London, 1895). See APPARITIONS; ECSTASY.

CLAKAMA, klå-kä'må, CLOCKAMA, klôkä'må, or KLOKAMA. An Amerind tribe of the Chinookan stock. See CHINOOK.

A

CLAL'LAM, SKLALAM, or NUSKLALA. Salishan tribe, formerly of considerable importance, occupying the greater part of the coast extending west from Puget Sound, in Clallam County, Wash. They still number about 330, attached to the Puyallup Agency.

CLAM (older form also clamp, from the firm clamp of the shell, AS. clam, bond, OHG. clamma, narrow pass; cf. also Dutch klamp, cleat). The popular name of many widely various bivalve mollusks, especially those good to eat. In the United States it commonly designates either the quohog (Venus mercenaria), distinguished as the hard or round clam, or else the manninose (Mya arenaria), called long or soft clam. The former is a heavy, globose shell, allied to the cockles, which plows its way along sandy bottoms, standing erect upon its thin edge, and is obtained wholly by raking, in water from 10 to 40 feet in depth. It abounds from Cape Cod to Florida, and also' near Shediac, New Brunswick, and is the common 'clam' of New York markets, where small ones (young) are much esteemed under the name of little necks,' after Little Neck, Long Island, whence they originally came. In Boston and New England the Indian name 'quohog' attaches to this, and 'clam' usually means the Mya, called 'soft clams' elsewhere. These are of a very different character, having comparatively thin, smooth, elongated shells, a protrusile, blade-like foot, adapted to digging, and siphons that may be longer than the shell. They remain sunken in the sand of the shore, between tide-marks, their siphonmouths just at the surface, and when disturbed they eject a spurt of water as they withdraw to safer depths. These clams are obtained by digging at low tide; and they are cultivated by the protection of certain favorable areas of seabeach, where they soon lie almost as thick as paving-stones. Formerly enormous quantities of both these clams, with razor-clams, etc., were gathered and salted in New England as bait for the cod-fisheries, but this demand has diminished. Great Britain has the 'gaper,' a closely allied species, but it is not so popular. On the New England coast two other large mollusks of deep water are eaten when obtainable, under the name of beach, sea, or surf clams-especially Spisula solidissima. The Southern States have a large edible species, also, in the painted clam (Callista gigantea). On the Pacific Coast-to which Eastern clams have been transplanted with some success, and are constantly sent, refrigerated, for immediate consumption-several edible bivalves are used, for some of which the term has been borrowed. Thus, the California 'flat clam' is a species of Semele, and others are of the genera Tapes, Saxidomus, and Glycymeris. The 'geoduck,' gathered for food by the Indians of the Northwest Coast, is Glycymeris generosa. The shells of most of these were formerly used by the natives in manufacturing the various beads and shell ornaments which passed as money among them. (See SHELL-MONEY.) land, the word 'clam' refers to some of the many fresh-water mussels. (See MUSSEL.) The 'giant' clam of the East Indies (Tridacna gigas) is the greatest of living mollusca, its soft part amounting to 20 pounds of edible flesh, while the deeply hollowed shells may weigh 500 pounds. "In some churches of France they are employed to hold the holy water-a use which

well accords with the beautiful white of the inner surface of the shell. . . . In many of the islands, stones are unknown; but, as a substitute, the natives make their knives and axes from the fragments of this shell." See Colored Plate of CLAMS AND EDIBLE MUSSELS.

The

FOSSIL FORMS. The genus Mya ('soft' or long' clam) appeared in Tertiary time, with species that show little difference from those now living. So with the genus Mactra. family Venerida, to which the little-neck clam (Venus mercenaria) belongs, is an old one; it cies of rounded form, which can often with diffibegan in the Middle Jurassic, with small speculty be distinguished from the accompanying The genera Tapes, Cythespecies of Cyprinidæ. rea, and Cyprimeria are abundant in Cretaceous rocks, Cytherea in the Eocene, and Venus in the Miocene. Shells of several species of served in the Miocene sands and marls of some Venus are extremely common, and finely prelocalities in Virginia and southern Europe. For American clams of all sorts, consult: Goode, Fishery Industries, sec. i. (Washington, 1884); Lovell, Edible Mollusks of Great Britain, etc. (London, 1884). For fossil forms, see TERTIARY; MIOCENE. See Colored Plate of CLAMS AND EDIBLE MUSSELS.

CLAM. In heraldry, a term for an escalop or cockleshell. It is supposed to indicate that the bearer has been a crusader, or has made long voyages by sea. See HERALDRY.

CLAMART, klå'mär'. A town in the Department of Seine, France, 42 miles southwest of Paris. It is a favorite residential suburb of Parisians, and is the seat of the Hospice Ferrari, an asylum for aged men. The Bois de Clamart, which is part of the Bois de Meudon, is a popular picnic resort of the Parisian bourgeoisie. Population, in 1901, 7391.

CLAMECY, klå'me-se. The capital of an arrondissement in the Department of Nièvre, France, at the confluence of the Yonne and the Beuvron, 38 miles northeast of Nevers (Map: France, K 4). Its parish church of Saint Martin, surmounted by a fine square tower, has interesting architectural features of the thirteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. The twelfthcentury Church of Bethlehem is now the annex of a hotel. The modern Château of Vauvert is a handsome building in fine grounds. There are manufactures of cloth, paper, leather, and pottery, and a considerable timber trade by river with Paris; a bronze bust, by Angers, of Jean Rouvet, the native who in 1549 invented the woodraft for supplying Paris with timber, stands on a bridge spanning the river. Population, in 1901,

5426.

CLAM-CRACKER.

Gitschin; was relieved of his command and brought before a military tribunal, by which, however, he was acquitted. While he was known to have committed strategical errors, the chief responsibility for the disasters was probably traceable to his superior officers.

CLAMPING-SCREW.

A tool used by carpenters and joiners for holding work on a table, or for securing two or more pieces together. Two sorts are generally found: One of two straight bars of wood or metal, each with a screw passing through, the screw-end pressing against the opposite bar; the second is a device shaped like the letter G, through the upper end of which the screw passes, and holds between its point and the lower end the portions to be clamped, generally for gluing together.

CLAN (Gael. clann, Ir. clann, cland, offspring, tribe, Welsh plant, offspring, children, Lat. planta, connected with Skt. kula, Lith. kiltis, family). A collection of families united under a chieftain, all claiming descent from a common stock, and possessed of a common surname. The word 'clan' has been adopted as the ethnological generic term. Synonyms and parallels have been sought in the Arabic hayy, the Greek yévos, genos, the Roman gens, the Russian mir, the German Gemeinde, the Swiss almend, the Irish sept, and the North American otem (totem). It is now well established, however, that in the primitive Indo-European organization of society several families, presumably kindred, united in a brotherhood (Greek oparpía, phratria; South Slavonic bratstvo; Latin curia, house); several brotherhoods in a tribe (Greek ovah, phyle, South Slavonic pleme, Latin tribus); and finally several tribes in a folk, or nation (Greek Ovos, ethnos, Latin populus). Higher than the folk were loose federations merely of nationsVölker, or populi. From this scheme it is clear that the primitive 'clan' is to be identified with the brotherhood rather than with the yέvos, genos, or gens. In fact, the Greek yevoç is postHomeric, and therefore comparatively late; doubtless it became politically important with the rise of the aristocracy. The typical Greek Yévog was but a powerful family under a single leader; most probably in early Attica the chief of every noble yέvos had a seat in the great aristocratic council (of the Areopagus). some Attic yevŋ, gene, were mere guilds of coppersmiths, of heralds, etc. The typical Latin gens likewise developed from the family, as is indicated by the derivation of the gentile name from the personal name, and was also a comparatively late institution. Probably every patrician gens was once represented by its chief in the senate. Whereas the yέvoc and gens are thus seen to have been monarchical, the opaτpía, phratria, and the curia were aristocratic; the nobles held the offices and priesthoods, and doubtless controlled the votes of the commons, many of whom were clients. In all essentials the bratstvo resembles the gens (yévos, genos) of the Greeks and Romans. The general principles of clanship were common rights and duties, with obligations to avenge one another's wrongs. The members were bound together, not only by the sentiment of common origin and blood, but also by the common worship of a protecting deity, from whom all claimed descent. After the introduction of Christianity among the South

But

ern Slavs, a patron saint took the place of the ancestral deity, who is still celebrated in song, though shorn of his divine qualities. Much confusion has arisen from identifying the clan with the village. The basis of the clan, tribe, and folk is kinship, real or assumed; the basis of the village, pagus, and civitas is in some degree planting that of kin. territorial-the idea of neighbor partly supIn simpler words, all the villagers were not even presumably kinsmen. Thus the village was the first step in the developNo ment of political society from tribal life. theory of exogamy, metronymy, or of patriarchal government will apply to all clans; there are indications of a great variety of primitive usage. Apart from the Southern Slavs and from sections of India, the Indo-European clan has continued most vital among the Celts, especially in the Highlands of Scotland. The feuds of the clans and the struggle between these autonomous societies, on the one hand, and the central Government on the other, made up a large part of the history of Scotland to the suppression of the Rebellion of 1745, after which the British Parliament enacted laws for the abolition of the hereditary jurisdiction of the Scottish chieftains, and for the disarming of the clans. The influence of the system still lingers, however, in remote and sparsely populated districts.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City (Eng. trans., Boston, 1889); Hearn, The Aryan Household (London, 1789); Maine, Early Law and Custom (New York, 1883); Zimmer, Altindisches Leben (Berlin, 1879); Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage (London, 1883); McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (London, 1896); Morgan, Ancient Society (New York, 1878); Leist, Græco-italische Rechtsgeschichte (Jena, 1884), and Altarisches Jus Gentium (Jena, 1889); Schrader, Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte (Jena, 1890)-very valuable; Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1893). For the true relation of the Greek and Roman gens to the other groups, consult: Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Südslawen (Vienna, 1885); Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales (London, 1895); Skene, Celtic Scotland (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876-80); Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London, 1869); the articles "Genos" and "Gens" in Howard, Local Constitutional History of the United States, vol. i. (Baltimore, 1889). For the relation of the clan to existing political institutions, see also TRIBE; So

who is at all familiar with music has any difficulty in naming the instrument or class of instruments from which a given tone proceeds. "The same note" may be sounded, e.g. on piano, organ, violin, and harp. We recognize it as "the same" in every case; and yet it "sounds different," so that we can say, "This is the note of a pipe, this of a struck, or bowed, or plucked string." The criterion of difference, in such cases, is termed clang tint, or clang color, or timbre. The note of a musical instrument is not a pure tone (see AUDITION), but a mixture