Faculty of Arts resembles rather the practice of European than American colleges. The degrees B.A., B.L., and B.Sc. are given at the end of an eight-years" course, the commencement of which is quite elementary. The first six years are devoted to Classics, French, English, Mathematics: in the last two years, Philosophy and Natural Science are studied. An examination is held on the completion of each of these portions of the work. The three degrees represent merely three grades of excellence. The teaching in the arts branches is given by the various affiliated colleges (Ste. Anne, Three Rivers, Saint Hyacinthe, etc.), in different parts of the province. The university, however, offers courses in the philosophical and scientific subjects, attended by the pupils of the Quebec Seminary. The expenses of the university are paid by the Quebec Seminary. The Laval charter was granted on condition that it should remain the sole Roman Catholic university of the province. The attempt to establish a separate university at Montreal was discountenanced by the Holy See, which permitted, however (1876), the establishment of branch faculties, with identical teaching. This was confirmed by provincial legislation (1881), and the Montreal branch of Laval acquired a practical independence by a Papal brief of 1889, and by the separate incorporation of its legal and medical faculties. But the Montreal professors (except in medicine are appointed by the council at Quebec. McGill University (Montreal) originated in a private endowment by the Hon. James McGill, in 1813. It received a royal charter in 1821, and commenced the work of teaching, in arts and medicine, in 1829. McGill expected his foundation to form part of a provincial government university, a scheme which proved impracticable. It results from this, however, that the supreme authority lies with the crown. The actual control is vested in a board of 15 governors selected by co-optation with the approval of the governor-general of Canada. These appoint the principal, and together with him and the Fellows form the corporation, the highest academical body of the university. There are four faculties, Arts, Applied Science, Law, and Medicine. In Arts, and Applied Science, the undergraduate course extends over four sessions of seven and one half months each, in Law it covers three sessions of eight months each, and in Medicine four sessions of nine months each. A combined course in Arts and Medicine can be taken in six years. The Faculty of Arts has a teaching staff of 53, with 356 students (session of 1902-3). In the first two years of the course leading to the degree of B.A. the subjects are closely prescribed with but little option. In the third and fourth year there is a wide range of selection among literary and scientific subjejcts: students may here specialize so as to obtain honor standing in a particular study or group of studies. The degree of M.A. is given on a special examination with presentation of a thesis. The fee for under-graduates is $61 per session, for partial students $22 per course. Summer courses are held during May and June in the subjects of the first two years for which special fees are paid. Women are admitted to this Faculty, but to no other. In the first two years they take their lectures in the Royal Victoria College, a residential college erected and en

VOL. 4-23

dowed by Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal (1883) for the women students at McGill. In the third and fourth years complete coeducation obtains. The Faculty of Applied Science has a staff of 40, with 280 students. It enjoys especial facilities owing to its exceptionally complete apparatus and equipment. It gives instruction in architecture, chemistry, surveying, civil, electrical, mechanical and mining engineering, and metallurgy. It grants the degree of B.Sc., and the higher degrees of M.Sc. (for special examination) and D.Sc. (for special research). The undergraduate yearly fee is $175. The Faculty of Medicine has a staff of 76 with 420 students. Its clinical teaching is conducted in the Montreal General Hospital, the Royal Victoria Hospital, and the Montreal Maternity Hospital. The annual fee is $125. Graduate courses in clinics and laboratory instruction are given during the month of June. The Faculty of Law has a teaching staff of II with 40 students. Students are instructed, as at Laval, in the subjects prescribed by the general council of the bar of the Province of Quebec. The annual fee is $60. Several colleges in Montreal and elsewhere are affiliated with McGill. The Stanstead Wesleyan College (Stanstead, P. Q.), and Vancouver College (Vancouver, B. C.), are affiliated for the work of the first two years in arts: Victoria College (Victoria, B. C.), for the first year in arts. The Congregational College of Canada, the Presbyterian College, the Wesleyan College of Montreal, the Diocesan College of Montreal (Church of England), are theological institutions affiliated with McGill. The McGill Normal School (Montreal) gives pedagogic training for elementary and secondary schools and awards provincial diplomas. The university possesses a fine library building with about 100,000 volumes. The theological colleges, and the Royal Victoria College provide residential accommodation, but there is no university residence. The University of Toronto is a provincial institution, whose constitutional powers and functions are defined in the University Act (Ontario, 1901). Its only college is University College (one of the most beautiful buildings on the continent), but with the university are federated a number of denominational colleges, Victoria (Methodist), Trinity (Anglican), Knox (Presbyterian), Wycliffe (Anglican), and Saint Michael's (Roman Catholic). The supreme authority is vested in the crown, acting through the lieutenant-governor of Ontario. Annual appropriations receive his ratification. Expenditures of endowments are ratified by the legislative assembly of Ontario. The professors of the university and of University College are appointed by the crown. The property of the University and of University College is vested in a board of nine trustees, four of them dignitaries of the university acting ex-officio, and five appointed by the lieutenant-governor. The university has Faculties of Arts, Law, Applied Science, and Medicine. The course in each Faculty extends over four years. In the Faculty of Arts instruction is given partly by professors, etc., attached to the University of Toronto, partly by the professoriate of University College. The federated Victoria and Trinity colleges also instruct their students in arts in the same subjects as University College. The students in arts may take either a general course, or select one of the four

teen honor courses (Classics, Mathematics, Modern Languages, etc.). The system favors a high degree of specialization on the part of capable students. The degree of M.A. is obtainable by special examination and presentation of a thesis one year after graduation. The degree Ph.D. is granted after two years of postgraduate work under the direction of the professoriate. The four years' course in the Faculty of Law leads to the degree of LL.B. The Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering grants degrees in Applied Science (B.A.Sc.) and in different engineering branches. The four years' course of instruction given by the Faculty of Medicine leads to the degree of M.B. To receive license to practise in Ontario students must pass the final examination prescribed by the Ontario Medical Council for which a fifth year of study is required. Clinical instruction is given at the Toronto General Hospital and other places. By the recent federation of Trinity University with the University of Toronto (in effect 1 Oct. 1904) the medical faculties of the two are now amalgamated. The university holds examinations and grants degrees in Dentistry, Pharmacy, Agriculture, Music, Pedagogy and Household Science, the preparation for which is mainly done in affiliated colleges such as the Royal College of Dental Surgeons, Ontario College of Pharmacy, etc. The number of students in 1903 attached to the University of Toronto (exclusive of theological students in federated colleges) was 2,135 of these 653 were students in Arts at University College, 300 in Arts in Victoria College, 721 in Medicine, and 402 in Applied Science. The University of Trinity College (previous to federation) had 140 students. The theological colleges are residential, and University College has a dining hall. Queen's University (Kingston, Ont.) was founded by Royal charter in 1841, its funds being raised by the Presbyterian church. For many years the university received a provincial grant of $5,000, which, however, was withdrawn in 1868. In spite of financial and other difficulties Queen's University rose under the distinguished Principal Grant (1877-1902) to a foremost place among Canadian universities. It has now a staff of 55 with 875 students. It has Faculties of Theology, Arts, Law, Medicine, and Practical Science. It confers also the post-graduate degrees of Ph.D. and D.Sc. These degrees are given four years after the degree of M.A. An approved thesis must be submitted, but residential study is not compulsory. Women are admitted to all except the theological faculty at Queen's on an equal footing with men. The university possesses an observatory, a museum, and a library of about 37,000 volumes. Degrees in Arts are awarded on examination to extramurai students. There is no university residence. The University of Ottawa is a Roman Catholic institution, founded by the Oblate Fathers in 1848 as the College of Bytown, and erected into a university in 1866. Unlike Laval it is an English-speaking institution, and draws a considerable number of students from the Eastern States. It offers a four years' course in theology, the degree of Bachelor of Divinity being granted at the end of the second year, that of Licentiate a year later, the final degree being Doctor of Divinity. There is a four years' course in Arts, largely classical and lit

erary, and courses of three years in Law, and Science. The university had 500 students in 1903 with a teaching staff of 52. The University of Manitoba, established 1877, by act of the local legislature, is a provincial institution, having sole power to confer degrees in Arts, Law, and Medicine, in Manitoba. The university gives instruction only in the departments of Natural and Physical Science: in respect to other subjects it is an examining body only, with examiners but no teaching professoriate. The educational work of the university is conducted in the affiliated colleges, Saint Boniface (Roman Catholic), Saint John's (Anglican), Manitoba (Presbyterian), the Wesleyan College (Methodist), and the Manitoba Medical College, all situated in Winnipeg except the first, which is in the suburb of Saint Boniface. Degrees in Divinity are granted by the affiliated colleges. The university had 368 students in 1903. Dalhousie College (Halifax), founded in 1821, is a non-residential, non-denominational institution, having full university powers. Women are admitted on terms of equality with men. It has a staff of 30 members with 350 students, in 1903. It has Faculties in Arts, Science, and Medicine, the course in each covering four years, and in Law with a three years' course. The course in arts follows the elective system. Medical instruction is given in the Halifax Medical College. It has a library of over 12,000 volumes. McMaster University (Toronto) is a Baptist establishment, with courses in Arts and Theology. It had in 1903 a staff of 16 instructors and 200 students. The University of Saint Joseph's College (Memracook, N. B.) was established by the (Roman Catholic) Fathers of the Holy Cross for the higher education of the French population of the maritime provinces. It has Theological and Art courses, and had 200 students in 1903 The University of New Brunswick (Fredericton) was founded as a college under provincial charter and endowed with crown lands in 1800, and erected into a university in 1859 Since 1845 it has been non-sectarian. The university has Faculties in Arts, and Engineering: the course in each covers four years. There is accommodation for resident students. Women. are admitted to the university. The number of students in 1903 was 134, with a staff of 9 instructors. Acadia College, a Baptist institution Until recently instruction was given only in Divinity and Arts, but a course in science has just been inaugurated. The University of Mount Allison College is a Methodist institution at Sackville, N. B., with Faculties in Arts and Theology. It has also an engineering course leading to entrance to the third year in Applied Science at McGill. It covers also a part of the work required for the Dalhousie Law School. The college has a staff of 10 instructors with 125 students in 1903. Bishops College, Lennoxville, is the Anglican University of the Province of Quebec. It has a Theological and Arts Faculty with 40 students, in 1903. The University of King's College, Windsor, N. S., founded in 1790, is the oldest of Canadian universities. It is a denominational institution, connected with the Church of England. It had 25 students in 1903. The Western University (London, Ont.) is also controlled by the Church of England. In addition to a divinity school of about 20. students, it has a medical faculty and a few s

dents in arts. See CANADA-HIGHER EDUCA-
TION; CANADA -
SECONDARY EDUCATION; CAN-
PRIMARY EDUCATION; CANADA-PUBLIC
STEPHEN LEACOCK,

ADA

EDUCATION.

Of McGill University. Canaigre, kǎn-ā'gr, a species of dock (Rumex hymenosepalus) indigenous to the arid region of southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, northern Mexico, and western Texas. It is a perennial herb with tuberous roots from which a reddish or green stem rises to a height of about two feet and bears rather large leaves resembling those of other docks. The tubers, which resemble those of dahlia, have long been used locally as a source of tannin, and fairly successful attempts have been made to grow them upon a commercial scale for this purpose. Propagation is easily effected by means of the tubers, about 2,000 pounds of which are required to plant an acre.

Canajoharie, kǎn'-a-jo-hă're, N. Y., an Indian word, meaning, "The pot that washes itself." A village on the south bank of the Mohawk River in Montgomery County, 55 miles west of Albany, in the most picturesque part of the Mohawk Valley. Canajoharie was first settled about 1740 by the Dutch and Germans. It was the home of Brant, Chief of the Six Nations, and place of departure from the Mohawk to the southern interior. The Erie Canal, the New York Central and West Shore railroads pass through the village. The village has two banks, with a combined capital of $275,000, a library, six churches, and a school of very high standing. Two weekly local newspapers, and one hay trade publication; national, flour mills, limestone quarries, paper and cloth bag manufactory and meat and fruit packing-houses. Is equipped with electric light and power, sewers and an abundant water supply. It is governed by a board of trustees and a council of five members, elected annually. Pop. 2,500.

Canal Dover, Ohio, a city of Tuscarawas County, situated on the Tuscarawas River and the Ohio Canal, and on the Pennsylvania and other railroads. There are deposits of coal, iron, and building-stone in the vicinity. The chief industries are in iron and steel, and the manufacture of racing-sulkies, baby-carriages, roofing, etc. Pop. (1910) 6,621.

Canal Du Mide. See Canals. Canal Ring. See TILDEN, SAMUEL J. Canale, Nicolo, nē-kō-lō' kä-nä'le, Venetian admiral, who flourished in the second half of 15th century. In 1469 he was commander of the Venetian fleet at Negropont (the ancient Chalcis), and succeeded in seizing the Turkish town of Enos. The cruelties perpetrated upon the inoffensive inhabitants created great indignation at Constantinople, and Mohammed II., with a view of resenting the outrages, besieged Negropont with a force of 120,000 men, and after a violent contest expelled the Venetians. Canale, to whom this defeat was attributed, was sentenced to death by the council of ten, but at the instance of Pope Paul II. and of other influential persons, his punishment was commuted to exile for life.

Canaletto, kä-nä-lět'tō, or Canale, Antonio, Venetian painter: b. Venice, 18 Oct. 1697; d. there, 20 Aug. 1768. He is celebrated

for his landscapes, which are true to nature, and his architectural paintings. He is said to have first used the camera obscura for perspective.

Canaletto, Bernardo Belotti, běr när'dō be-lot'tě, Venetian painter: b. 1724: d. Warsaw, 1780. He was nephew of Antonio Canaletto (q.v.), who was likewise a good artist, and painted many Italian landscapes. He lived in Dresden, where he was a member of the Academy of Painters.

Canals. Navigation canals, as distinguished from power or irrigation canals, may be classified in various ways. One is according to their magnitude, and the consequent traffic for which they are intended; as boat and barge canals, or ship canals. Or again, according to their source of supply; as pure canals, mere artificial cuts with no water but what is turned into them; tidal canals, varying with ebb and flow; and canalized rivers, with weirs to increase depth and a lock at one end, and if necessary, lateral cuts around falls or other obstructions. Or according to their geographical purpose: as isthmian canals, like those across Suez, Panama, and Corinth; peninsular, to save distance or a stormy passage, as those across Jutland, the Languedoc Canal from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, the Caledonian, the Chesapeake & Delaware (bays) across Delaware, etc.; canals around falls, as the Welland, Sault Ste. Marie, Ohio Falls, etc.;_system-joining canals, as those connecting the Danube and Rhine, the Seine and Loire, Lake Erie and the Ohio or the Hudson, Lake Michigan and the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa or Lake Champlain, etc.; or artificial-seaport canals, as the Manchester & Liverpool, to give inland cities access to the sea. Practically, however, the first is the only very useful one.

The chief problems in the construction and operation of a canal are: (1) To proportion its dimensions to the probable volume of traffic, in order to save interest, maintenance, and operation charges. (2) To give it the shortest and most easily constructed route, and the best lines and form, consistent with the cheapest maintenance and operation. (3) To provide and regulate a constant supply of water. shift vessels from one level to another most (4) To speedily and cheaply and with the least waste of water. (5) To gain the maximum of speed with the least injury to the embankment.

1. American and English barge canals have of railroads; and it is agreed that a principal very largely gone out of use since the advent reason is the small cargo they can float, making the expense of freightage heavy in proportion. As the operating expense of canals with thrice the carrying capacity is less than half as much again, it is certain that with enlarged size and a full business a great reduction in freight rates would be possible. But the latter clause is the dubious part: if the traffic were not commensurate, the added expense would still further handicap them as business ventures. It is theremake a canal; and has hitherto proven insoluble, fore a very nice question exactly how large to except to large communities, which can afford to sink a part of the expense in the general "plant" of their industrial appliances.

2. A canal cannot, like a highroad or a railroad, have "grades." Each level must be absolute until a new one is established; and it

must follow hills and valleys as it finds them, tunnel the former and build aqueducts across the latter or the river-courses, and change levels when needed. But locks are expensive both to build and operate, and delay traffic; the fewer the better on all grounds. It is therefore often thought cheaper in the long run, and a saving of time in transit, to take a longer route and save locks. The soil is also to be considered: rock or hardpan costs more to excavate, and a longer route may furnish cheaper cutting. On the other hand, in hard ground, the cut can be more nearly vertical and less excavation be needed. In soft ground the sides must have a heavy slope or they will cave, so that the top may be from two to two and a half times as wide as the bottom; in all ordinary ground some slope is needed; in rock cutting the sides are nearly or quite vertical, as also in passing through towns, where the sides are of masonry and space is a desideratum. The question of route is therefore anything but a simple one, and is complicated with many business and mechanical ones. The number of bridges, aqueducts, culverts, etc., to be built is an important consideration. The width must be sufficient to allow two of the largest vessels to pass abreast without fouling, and the narrower the way the more traction power is. needed. The width of bottom is usually fixed at the beam width of two vessels, and the depth at 18 inches more than their draft. The excavation of canals is carried on like other large excavations, with machinery from the ordinary pick and shovel, scraper, and cart, to great steam excavators and dredges, powder and dynamite for rock blasting, and portable railroads for carrying off the material excavated, etc. Aqueducts have always masonry foundations or piers, supporting a trough of masonry, wood, or steel. When the interfering stream is small, it is carried under the canal by a culvert.

3. The provision of a supply of water might well be placed first, as the canal would be useless without it. If possible, the location is chosen so as to fill its summit levels from sufficient lakes or streams. Otherwise artificial reservoirs must be constructed, with all the care needed for the water supply of towns except as to quality. The drainage basin must be ample to supply loss of water by evaporation, leakage, and lockage, with reference to length of canal, number and size of locks, and volume of traffic; and the feeders properly calculated as to length and size. When an elevated supply is not to be had, pumping works take their place. Of the causes of wastage mentioned above, evaporation cannot be lessened. Leakage is prevented in porous soil by cementing or puddling the sides of the canal. But lockage is the constant drain on the supply, which has exercised much ingenuity in minimizing. One method of preventing waste is also connected with the regulation of overflow: to keep a "ladder of locks far enough apart, say 100 yards, so that the discharge from upper to lower level shall not overspill: or an intervening pond must be formed. As overflow not only wastes, but may cause heavy damages and suits, and also injures the towpath, waste-weirs should be provided at convenient distances; and as a break would drain the entire reach before it could be repaired, these must be localized by stop-gates at short distances, making only a small basin to

waste and do damage with its water. The towpath must also be so sloped and prepared as to prevent its soaking and miring or crumbling.

4. The lock is the chief agency for shifting boats from one level to another. Its principle is to open a smail basin with one closed end into a larger one, thus raising or lowering the water of the smaller to the level of the larger without much affecting the latter. In practice, the lock is a chamber with its sides at the upper level and its bottom at the lower; and to save water, it is made as nearly as possible the size of the largest vessel that is to use it, with six inches to a foot of play at each side and end. The lateral walls in the more important canals are of stone. The ends are wooden or iron folding gates, opening up-stream; each made of two leaves pivoted in the walls, each leaf a little more than half the width of the lock, so that they shut together at an obtuse angle against the current, the weight therefore only serving to close them still tighter. When a vessel is to be brought from one level to the other, it is floated into the basin or "pound," and the gate shut behind it. A sluice or valve in the upper gate then admits water and slowly raises it to the upper level, or the one in the lower gate lets it down to the lower level, as the case may be. The total lockage takes all the way from 6 to 20 minutes. These sluices are worked by rack and pinion in the gate, or revolve on an axis; they are managed by long levers set in the top of the gate, and reached by a "running board» projecting over it. The gates themselves are also managed by levers except in the better equipped and important ones, where they are often worked by steam machinery, at a saving of half the time. To save time and expense of superintendence, the reaches are made as long as possible, and the locks bunched in one spot in "ladders" of several close together, like a flight of steps, with a high lift, rather than scattered along the route. As said above, these should be some way apart to prevent overflow. As the pressure on the gates and sides is very great, the limit of "lift" in a lock, or the vertical height to which the water is raised, averages not over eight or nine feet, and may be only three or four; though 12 is not very uncommon, and 18 has been attained at the Sault Ste. Marie. On the largest locks the water is admitted through a culvert parallel to the side wall of the lock, and opening into the centre through a tunnel; this is said to reduce the time of lockage considerably. Of course too sudden an admission of water would injure the boat. Pipes are also used.

It is evident that at each passage of a boat, the upper level has to supply water enough to fill the lock between it and the lower. It may be noted that the ascending traffic takes far more than the descending, because in the latter case the water displaced by the boat itself flows back into the upper reach, and remains there after the gates are shut. A 25-ton boat with an eight-foot lift costs 163 tons of water going up and 103 coming down. To economize this supply where water is scarce, two chief plans have been devised. One is to form at the side of the lock a reservoir equal in size. When the lock is to be emptied, the water is run into the reservoir until it and the lock are at the same level, which of course will be half height. The reservoir is then closed, and the remaining water in