The fasts on the jejunia quatuor tempestatum, which continued for three days every quarter of the year, were penances, as was that of the period of 40 days (before Easter, or rather before Good Friday, Quadrigesima), which was called, by way of excellence, the fast, and which commemorated the 40 days' fast of Jesus in the wilderness. With regard to the origin of Christian fasts, opinions differ. The most common. is, that Telesphorus, bishop of Rome, in the middle of the second century, first instituted the 40 days' fast as a rule of the Church. By Pope Gregory the Great, about 600, Ash Wednesday was made the beginning of the fast, and the day before was called fast eve, because in the night of this day, at twelve o'clock, the fast began. This fast was preceded by a feast of three days, very obnoxious to the strict zealots. "Christians," it is said, "on these days deliver themselves up to voluntary madness, put on masks, exchange sexes, clothe themselves like spectres, give themselves up to Bacchus and Venus, and consider all pleasure allowable." This is the origin of the present carnival, or Fasching, as it is called in the south of Germany, and which continues in that country from Twelfth Day to Ash Wednesday. The name carnival is derived from the Latin caro, carnis, flesh, and vale, farewell (according to Ducange, from the Latin denomination of the feasts in the Middle Ages, carnis levamen, solace of the flesh), because at that time people took leave of flesh. Previously to the commencement of their long abstinence, men devoted themselves to enjoyment, particularly during the last three days of the carnival. The carnival is nothing but the Saturnalia of the Christian Romans, who could not forget their pagan festivals. At least it greatly resembles the Saturnalia which were celebrated annually in December, with all kinds of mirth, pleasure, and freedom, in honor of Saturn, and the golden age when he governed the world, and to preserve the remembrance of the liberty and equality of man in the youth of the world. In Rome, the carnival brought to view, in a lively manner, the old Saturnalia in a new form. During the last days of the carnival, and particularly during the day which preceded the long fast, mummeries, plays, tricks, and freedom of every kind, abounded. From Italy, the modern Saturnalia passed to the other Christian countries of Europe. The wealthiest class commenced their amusements 8 or 10 days before Ash Wednesday,, the middle classes 2 or 3 days, the poor only observed one day (the Fastnacht of the Germans). In the amusements of this period the dramatic poetry of Germany had its origin, after the cities had attained a flourishing condition. Its first traces appeared in the 13th century. The mummeries of the carnival produced the idea of adopting some character, and carrying it through. To please the multitude, and make the laugh more certain, the manners of common life were caricatured. These exhibitions afterward became more cultivated and developed. On fast eve persons in disguise sometimes went from one house to another, to make sport with their friends and acquaintances. A merry society of this kind formed a plan to represent some scene in their disguises, and hold a regular conversation at one of these mummeries. The unknown players received praises, entertainments, or presents. Encouraged by this success, the company grew stronger, their fables

and speeches became longer by degrees, until they attained to regular representations of human life. It was in Nüremberg, renowned for its wares and its wit, that the first fast eve's play was produced, coarse and frolicsome, to suit the taste of the citizens. The earliest of these pieces that have come down to us date from 1450-70; they have a near relationship to the masques of the English and the farces of the French, as have the spiritual fast eve's plays, religious burlesques, to the Mysteries and Moralities. In Italy the carnival is now celebrated with the greatest show and spirit at Rome. It lasts for the 10 days preceding Ash Wednesday, certain observances taking place on certain days. Some days, for instance, are devoted to the throwing of comfits, or of small plaster pellets that take their place, these being flung from the balconies of the houses upon the persons in the streets especially in the Corso - who retaliate in the same way, and in order that they may do this many of them are mounted upon lofty cars or other vehicles, all being masked. On other days the finest equipages move along in procession, and flowers instead of comfits are thrown. Races of riderless horses in the Corso are another prominent feature of carnival time. After sunset on Shrove Tuesday everybody carries a lighted taper (these being known as moccoletti), and each tries to extinguish as many others as he can while keeping his own alight. Venice, Turin, Milan, Naples, Florence, etc., also celebrate the carnival with more or less ceremony, and the same can be said of various The carnival at Rome has been excellently detowns of the south of France, Nice in particular. scribed by Goethe. In Germany the carnival is olic cities of the Rhine valley, Mayence, Bonn, celebrated with brilliancy only in the Cathbut above all Cologne. In Protestant countries, generally, the feast is not observed to any extent.

Carniv'ora, broadly, those animals which prey upon other animals; but in a restricted sense, that order of mammals to which the The head cat, dog, bear, and seal belong. is small in proportion to the bulk of the body, and the skin is well covered with hair. The limbs, four in number, are fully developed, and are adapted either for walking or swimming. Two sets of teeth, deciduous or milk and permanent, are always developed in succession, and in both sets incisors, canines, and molars, are distinguishable. The order is divided into two groups, the Fissipedia, which include such animals as the lion, wolf, bear, etc., whose life is terrestrial; and the Pinnipedia, or those which are specially adapted for aquatic life.

1. Fissipedia.-All the carnivores of this division, except the sea-otter (Enhydra), have six incisor teeth in each jaw, the canine teeth are prominent, and one of the molar series in each jaw is usually compressed laterally, so as to present a cutting edge. The toes are furnished with claws, and the anterior limbs are used for seizing and holding prey as well as for walking. The skull is contracted behind the orbits, so as to give an hour-glass form when seen from above. The hollow formed by this constriction on each side of the head is bridged over by the wide zygomatic arch, and thus gives room for the powerful muscles of mastication. The lower jaw is articulated to the skull, so that it can only be moved up and down. The incisor

3-8' 1-1

3-8

8-8

and canine teeth are represented by the formula 1-1 The teeth behind the canines increase in size from before backwards, and vary from in the cat, to in the South African otocyon, the total number of teeth of all kinds ranging from 30 to 48. The posterior teeth are divided into premolars and molars; the last of the premolar series in the upper, and the first of the molar series in the lower jaw presenting the lateral compression and trenchant margin which earns for them the name of sectorial or carnassial teeth. Behind the carnassial the molars have tuberculated crowns. The stomach is simple and undivided, and, as a general rule, is more rounded in the flesh-eating genera. The limbs terminate in digits, which are never fewer than four, and are furnished with sharp claws, which in the Felide are retractile within sheaths of the integument on the dorsal surface of the toes. In walking, the extremities of the toes are applied to the ground, as in the "digitigrade" cat and dog; or the whole sole of the foot is put down, as in the "plantigrade" bear. The six families included under the fissipede carnivores are: (1) Felida: lion, tiger, leopard, cat, etc. These present the highest type of the carnivorous structure. The claws are retractile. (2) Canida: wolf, dog, jackal, fox, etc. The claws are not retractile, and the gape is longer. The toes in this and the previous family are five on the anterior and four on the posterior extremities; (3) Hyanide: hyæna, aardwolf, etc. The hyænas have the anterior limbs longer than the posterior, and both terminate in four toes. The skull and dentition approximate to those of the Felida; (4) Viverrida. The supple elongated bodies of these animals are intermediate between those of the cats and the martens. Some, as the civet, gennet, zibet, have the claws retractile; in others, as the ichneumon and rasse, they are not retractile. Those mentioned are digitigrade, but the suricate of central Africa is plantigrade. In this family glands are found under the tail, the secretions of which have powerful odors. The diet of this family is not purely animal. (5) Mustelide. The members of this family have elongated bodies with short limbs, terminating usually in five-toed feet with retractile or non-retractile claws. The marten, weasel, polecat, ermine, glutton, or wolverene, constitute one sub-family of exclusively terrestrial life. The badgers, the skunks, and the like, constitute another division. (6) Urside. In this family the carnassial tooth is no longer trenchant, but tuberculated. All are plantigrade, but the habits and aspect vary considerably, and include, besides the bears, the raccoons, panda, and several lesser forms. The raccoon and its allies are sometimes made a family with the name Procyonidæ.

2. Pinnipedia.— The aquatic carnivores comprise three families, represented by the walrus or sea-horse, the eared seals, and the common seals. They are related to the preceding families through the otters and the bears, and agree in having the extremities modified into swimming organs or flippers, and the teeth more uniform in character. See SEALS; WALRUS.

Carnivora, Fossil. The evolution of the Carnivora through the Tertiary Period is shown by numerous fossil species. These indicate that the modern carnivores are descended from a

group of primitive Carnivora (see CREODONTA) of the early Eocene, and have gradually diverged from a single stock, of which the Viverrida, or civets, are the nearest living representatives. From these the dogs branched out in one direction, the mustelines, hyænas, and cats in others, while the bears and raccoons are offshoots of primitive dogs. Many intermediate stages are known, between dogs and bears (as Amphicyon, Hyænarctos), dogs and raccoons (Phlaocyon), mustelines and civets (Plesictis, etc.), civets and hyænas (Ictitherium). No true Carnivora are found fossil in South America until the end of the Tertiary, and (with a single exception) none exist now in Australia. In both continents their place was supplied by carnivorous marsupials see MARSUPIALIA), which branched out into groups more or less paralleling the true Carnivora of the northern hemisphere. See also BEARS; CATS; DOGS; FOSSIL.

Carnivorous Plants, plants of various genera which subsist partly upon insects and other small animals which they entrap in vari

ous ways.

modified leaf or part of a leaf, and in some cases The apparatus in each case is a the modifications are so curious, so well adapted to the use to which they are put, and so perfect in action, that the plants seem almost intelligent. The object sought by these plants seems to be to supply themselves with nitrogenous food, which is generally in meagre supply where they usually live- undrained swamps. Probably, too, such plants as do not live in these habitats formerly did, but have not yet lost the use of the apparatus. A case of this kind is exhibited by the genus Utricularia (see BLADDERWORT). In this genus various species provided with active bladders, which act like eeltraps, live submerged in ponds; other species, also possessing active but less perfect and useful traps, live in the marshy soil of swamps. Still others live on dry ground, but these have usually abortive traps. The conclusion is that as the ponds became swamps, and the swamps were converted into dry land, the supply of nitrogenous food increased, and hence the traps became aborted, because they were no longer needed.

Probably the most nearly intelligent of these carnivorous plants is the Venus' fly-trap (Dionaa), found in the southeastern United States. The trap consists of two pieces hinged together. On the margins are bristles, and in the interior a few sensitive hairs, which, when touched, act like a trigger, and the apparatus closes. Should an insect cause this action the bristles will prevent its escape and the trap will remain closed until its digestion is complete, when the trap will open, cast out the indigestible portions, and be ready for another victim. If the trap fails to catch its prey, or if it be sprung by something it cannot utilize, it will open again in a short time. In the sundew (Drosera) the leaves are provided with glandular hairs which close over the insect that alights upon the leaf, and a glistening sticky substance holds it fast until its digestible parts are absorbed by the plant.

In the pitcher-plants (Sarracenia, Nepenthes, etc.), the pitcher consists of a tube either with. or without a lid or hood. Around the mouth there is usually a sugary secretion which acts as a lure. The insect that alights cannot escape