because the tube is lined with hairs that force him downward to the bottom of the tube, which is usually partly filled with water. Some other genera in which the carnivorous habit is developed are Darlingtonia, Aldrovandra, and Pinguicula. Consult: Darwin, Insectivorous Plants.'

Carnochan, kär'no-kăn, John Murray, American surgeon, famous for his bold and skilful operations: b. Savannah, Ga., 4 July 1817; d. New York, 28 Oct. 1887. He studied at Edinburgh and at various European universities; and began his practice in New York in 1847. In 1851 he became professor of surgery at the New York Medical College, and surgeonin-chief to the State Immigrant Hospital. At one time he cured neuralgia by excising the whole trunk of the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves. In 1852 he tied the femoral artery to cure exaggerated nutrition. He also tied the primitive carotid artery on both sides, to cure elephantiasis of the neck. In 1853 he exsected the entire radius, in 1854 the entire He published a treatise on Congenital Dislocations, and a translation of Rokitausky's 'Pathological Anatomy.'

ulna.

Carnot, Lazare Hippolyte, lä-zär e-pō-lēt kär-no, French statesman, second son of the preceding: b. St. Omer, 6 April 1801; d. 16 March 1888. He was of liberal opinions, became a disciple of St. Simon, and wrote the 'Exposition générale de la doctrine Saint Simonienne,' the authorship of which was, with his consent, ascribed to Bazard. But as soon as St. Simonism assumed the form of a religious creed, Carnot parted with his friends, and became a journalist, and the chief editor of the 'Revue encyclopédique.' He was also entrusted with the publication of Grégoire's and Barère's 'Mémoires. He was elected to the chamber of deputies in 1839, and re-elected in 1842 and 1846. After the revolution of February 1848, he was minister of public instruction until 5 July, and improved, as such, the condition of the teachers, rendered the normal schools free, and established free lectures. In 1848 he was elected to the constituant, and 10 March 1850, to the legislative assembly. After the coup d'état of December 1851, he left France; during his absence, he was elected a member of the corps législatif, but refused to take the oath. He was re-elected in 1857, but again refused to He published the memoirs of his father

serve.

(1860-4).

(

Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, lä zär nik-ō-lä mär-gā-rēt, French soldier and statesman: b. Nolay, Burgundy, 1753; d. Magdeburg, 2 Aug. 1823. From his youth he exhibited an uncommon talent for the mathematical and military sciences, entered the corps of engineers, and rose in office by the favor of the Prince of Condé. He published, afterward, Mathematical Essays, which caused him to be elected a member of several learned societies. His eulogy on Vauban received the prize of the Academy of Dijon. In 1791 he was appointed deputy to the constituent assembly, but at first took part only in military affairs. On his proposal the officers of the nobility were removed from the army, and others substituted from the citizens. He also proposed that implicit obedience should only be demanded of the soldier in presence of the enemy, at other times he should have all the

privileges and rights of the citizen; a strange proposal to come from a military chief. As a member of the convention he voted for the death of Louis. In the following March he was sent to the army of the north, where he put himself at the head and repulsed the enemy. On his return to the convention he was made a

member of the Committee of Public Safety. The influence of Carnot in the military operations now began to be more deeply felt. In possession of all the plans deposited in the archives of Louis XIV., he organized and directed the French armies; and his direction undoubtedly After contributed very much to their success. the fall of Robespierre he was often accused, but always acquitted, because his duty had been to take care of the defense of the country, and he could not be made answerable for the cruel decrees of Robespierre, in which Carnot's name, as he was a member of the committee, was of course to be found. At the establishment of the directory in 1795 Carnot was chosen a member, and for some time maintained an important influence. Barras at length succeeded him in the department of war, and was ever after his enemy. His plan for the overthrow of Barras was unsuccessful, and with some others he was sentenced to transportation on the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4) 1797. He fled to Germany and published a defense, which was eagerly read in Paris, and by the exposure of the conduct of his former colleagues hastened their overthrow on the 30th Prairial (June 18) 1799. After the 18th Brumaire Carnot was recalled, and appointed inspecteur aux revues, and two months later, in April 1800, minister of war. He soon after retired into the bosom of his family, but was called to the tribunate, 9 March 1802. He often opposed the views of the government, voted against the consulship for life, and his was the only voice raised against the proposal for the imperial dignity. He remained, however, a member of the tribunate till it was abolished, passed the next seven years of his life in retirement, and published several valuable military works. In 1814 Napoleon gave him the chief command at Antwerp. He connected a vigorous defense with a careful regard for the interest of the city, which, by the command of Louis XVIII., he afterward surrendered to the British General Graham. He still retained his titles and his honors, but as a firm republican he could never expect the favor of the court; particularly as, in his memorial to the king, he openly and severely censured the measures of government, in consequence of which he was passed over in the new organization of the Academy of Sciences. When Napoleon was once more at the helm of state in 1815, he made Carnot count and peer of the empire, and pressed upon him the ministry of the interior. Carnot discharged the difficult duties of this office with his usual integrity. After the emperor's second fall he was made a member of the provisory government of France, and was afterward the only one of the members of it comprehended in the ordinance of 24 July. He retired to Cerney, where he employed his pen on political subjects; then to Warsaw with his family; and finally to Magdeburg. Among Carnot's writings the most valuable are his Essai sur les Machines'; 'Réflexions sur la Métaphysique du Calcul infinitésimal'; 'Sur la Géometrie de Position'; 'De la Défense des Places fortes'; 'Ex

posé de la Conduite politique de Carnot, depuis le 1 Juill. 1814. In Magdeburg Carnot published Mémoire sur la Fortification primitive,' and a volume of poems. He was rigid in his love of virtue, a scholar, a general, and an inflexible republican. He was universally esteemed, both in France and in foreign lands, and was honored by all parties.

Carnot, Marie François Sadi, mä-rē fränswä sä-de, French president, grandson of Carnot (q.v.): b. Limoges, 11 Aug. 1837; d. Lyons, 24 June 1894. He was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and became a civil engineer. In 1871 M. Gambetta appointed him prefect of the Seine-Inférieure, and intrusted him with the duty of seeing to the defenses of his department, a task which he fulfilled with great ability. M. Brisson gave him the portfolio of public works in his cabinet of 1885, and in the following year he became minister of finance, retaining this post under Brisson's successor, De Freycinet. In 1887 he was elected president of the French republic in succession to M. Jules Grévy, but before his term of office had expired he was assassinated at Lyons by an Italian anarchist named Caserio.

Carnot, Nicolas Léonard Sadi, nik-ō-lä lā-ō-när sä-dē, French physicist: b. Paris I June 1796; d. there, 24 Aug. 1832. He was educated at the polytechnic school; in 1814 he entered the engineer corps, where he served until 1828, becoming captain in 1826. In 1824 he published his book, Reflexions sur la Puissance Notrice du Feu,' in which he laid down the principle that the efficiency of a thermodynamic engine is proportional to the amount of heat transferred from the source of heat to the condenser; and that heat passes only from a warmer to a colder body. This is called the second law of thermodynamics and is known also as Carnot's principle.

Carnotite, a mineral first described in 1899, and now one of the most important ores of uranium. It is a hydrous vanadate of uranium and potassium, its formula being, perhaps, KO. 2U2O1. V2O. 3H2O. Radium has been shown to be present in it and radiographs may be made from the crude mineral. It seems likely that it will become an important ore of radium. It is a canary-yellow crystalline powder, usually occurring disseminated through sandstone, but sometimes in earthy masses of considerable richness. Its chief locality is in Montrose County, Colo., but it has recently been reported from Utah.

Carnutes, kär-nū'tēz, or Carnuti, ti, an ancient tribe living in central Gaul. At war with Cæsar in 52 B.C.

Caro, kä'rō, Annibale, Italian author: b. Citta Nuova, 1507; d. 1566. In 1543 he was appointed secretary to Pietro Ludovico Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, who entrusted him with several missions to Charles V. After the assassination of the Duke his own life was in

considerable danger. He took refuge in Parma, and was treated in a friendly manner by the new Duke Octavio Farnese, whose two brothers, the cardinals, Ranuccio and Alexander, took him successively into their service. With the latter he remained from 1548 to his death in 1566, and received from him several ecclesiastical preferments. Caro devoted himself chiefly to the study of numismatics and the Tuscan language,

and his pure and elegant style in verse and prose soon became generally admired. His translation of the Eneid in blank verse is excellent. After his death appeared a translation by him of Longus, and of Aristotle's 'Rhetoric'; also 'Rime (1569), and 'Lettere familiari) (1572-5), the former of which are admired for the elegance of the verse, and the latter as models of beautiful Italian prose.

Caro, Elme Marie, ělm mä rē kä-ro, French philosopher: b. Poitiers, 4 March 1826; d. 13 July 1887. He was a lecturer at the École Normale of Paris in 1857, professor at the Sorbonne 1867, and a member of the French Academy in 1876. He was one of the popular lecturers of his day and his lectures in defense of the Christian religion were largely attended, being especially popular with women. He published 'L' Idée de Dieu et ses nouveaux Critiques'; 'La Philosophic de Goethe'; 'La Materialisme et la Science'; 'Etudes Morales sur le Temps présent'; 'Nelanges et Portraits.'

rian: b. Gnesen, 2 Feb. 1836. He was educated Caro, Jakob, yä kōb kä'ro, German histoat Berlin and Leipsic, traveled in Galicia and southern Russia, and in 1863 became lecturer at the University of Jena and later professor; in 1868 he was professor at Breslau. He has written 'Das Interregnum Polens 1856 (1861); Liber Cancellaria Stanislai Ciolek' (1871-4); Lessing und Swift, Studien uber Nathan den Weisen (1869); Aus der Kanzlei Kaiser Siegsmunds' (1879); 'Das Bundniss zu Canterbury) (1880); Beata und Halszka, eine Polnisch-Russische Geschichte aus dem 16. Jahr hundert.' (1880); and a continuation of Röpell's 'Geschichte Polens.'

Caro, Miguel Antonio, mē-gěl' än-tō'nē-ō, Colombian prose-writer and poet: b. Bogotá, Colombia, 10 Nov. 1843. He has been an editor and contributor to periodicals. His principal works are Poems (1866); Hours of Love,' a prose work; and a translation into Spanish 1873-5). He is a correspondent of the Royal verse of Virgil's complete works (3 vols. Spanish Academy, and in 1886 was national librarian in the Colombian Congress.

Carob, kar'ob, or Algaro'ba-bean (Ceratonia siliqua), a leguminous plant of the suborder Casalpineæ, growing wild in all the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and more especially in the Levant. It has a dark-green foliage, and produces pods in which the seeds are embedded in nutritious_pulp, of the taste and consistence of manna. The names "locust" and "St. John's bread" have been given to the legumes of this plant, from an idea that they were the food eaten, along with wild honey, by the Baptist in the wilderness. The legumes are for horses, this being their principal use in the sometimes imported into this country as food south of Europe and the north of Africa, where the plant is cultivated. Singers are said to chew the seeds for improving the voice.

Caröe, kǎ'rō, William Douglas, English architect of Danish parentage: b. Liverpool, 1857. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied architecture with the eminent architect, John L. Pearson. He is architect to Southwell Cathedral and to the Diocesan societies of Lichfield and Derbyshire, as well as to the dean and chapter of Canter

Carol, a song of praise sung at Christmas or Easter. It originally meant a song accompanied with dancing, in which sense it is frequently used by the old poets. It appears to have been danced by many performers, by taking hands, forming a ring, and singing as they went round. It has been said that the oldest carol

was that sung by the heavenly host when the birth of the Saviour was announced to the shepherds on the plains of Bethlehem. It is probable that the practice of singing carols at Christmas-tide arose in imitation of this, as the majority of the carols declared the good tidings of great joy; and the title of Noels, nowells, or novelles, applied to carols, would seem to bear out this idea. Carol singing is of great antiquity among Christian communities, as the carol by Aurelius Prudentius, of the 4th century, will show.

Carolan, kär'ō lăn, Turlogh, Irish musical genius: b. near Nobber, County of Westmeath, about 1670; d. 1738. Having lost his sight when a child, he studied the harp, and in after life not only maintained himself thereby, but even

became famous.

Carolanos, kä-rō-lä'nōs, a heathen tribe of the Philippines, living in the mountain lands of the island of Negros, especially the Cordillera of Canyan. They are of Malayan stock and may be identical with the Buquitnon, though that cannot be determined. Practically nothing is known of them.

drawn up and published in 1507. The same was also adopted in 1510 by the margrave of Brandenburg and Franconia; and at last a law of criminal procedure for the empire at large was passed by the diet at Ratisbon, in 1532. The Carolina contains 219 articles, which regulate the standing and oaths of judges, the character of witnesses, the penalties of different crimes, and the circumstances in which torture at that time common in criminal jurisprudence should be applied. Several German princes, as the elec tor of Saxony, the elector of Brandenburg, and of the palatinate, protested against it, in order to protect the laws of their states and their own privileges against the legislative power of the emperor; but at last the Carolina was established in almost every part of the empire. From the connection of Switzerland with Germany, and the fact that several Swiss towns were imperial cities, German laws frequently passed into Switzerland, and the Carolina became the law by which even the Swiss troops in the service of the kings of France were governed until the French Revolution.

Caroli'na Allspice. See CALYCANTHUS.

Carolina, Original Constitution of. For many years after the subversion of the old English order by political and religious insubordination, 1642-60, the dominant idea of the conservatives was to prevent its_recurrence, as with the conservatives after the French Revolution; and their chief dread was of republicans and dissenters. It is an almost grotesque incident of this reaction, that by far its narrowest embodiment came from a liberal philosopher_and an unbelieving incendiary politician,- John Locke and Lord Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper). A group of eight noblemen, headed by the famous Lord Clarendon, and including

Shaftesbury, were granted on 24 March 1663, Charles II.; as extended 30 June 1665, it ina tract called the province of Carolina, after cluded the present North and South Carolina and

Carolina, kä-rō-lē'na. This name is generally given to a famous law of the German Empire, of the year 1532, under Charles V., which he himself called an ordinance of criminal procedure (Peinliche Gerichtsordnung). From him it was at a later period called Constitutio criminalis Carolina, or shortly Carolina. The arbitrary administration of justice, the disorder and cruelty which had become customary in the courts of Germany, where many a process was begun and ended with torture, and persons were sentenced even to death without regular process, gave occasion to this law. From the beginning of the peace of the land the necessity of such a law was felt throughout the country; but it was difficult in this, as in all other cases, to make the different members of the empire agree on one general measure. The Baron Johann von Schwarzenberg was chiefly instrumental in introducing this ordinance. He became minister of state of the Prince-bishop of Bamberg, and succeeded in procuring an ordinance of criminal procedure for Bamberg to be

Pacific. "To avoid erecting a numerous democwho was Shaftesbury's secretary, draw up racy," in their own words, they had Locke, (whether on his own lines or Shaftesbury's is a moot point) a form of government called the "Fundamental Constitutions," which is a classic for impractical absurdity even among Utopias. The mass of the people (not alone, be it remembered, the future immigrants, but a considerable population already living there in pure democracy) were to be hereditary "leet-men," or serfs of the soil. Next above them was a sort of upper middle-class commons called "lords of the manor," who could let out 10-acre tenant farms. Over both (as the charter gave the proprietors the right to create titles of nobility other than English ones) were a fantastic selfperpetuating colonial noblesse, of "landgraves" and "caciques." Crowning the whole were the proprietors; the eldest was "palatine" or viceroy, the others were admiral, chamberlain, high constable, chief justice, chancellor, high steward, and treasurer. The "leet-men" held three fifths of the land; the nobility and "lords of the manor" one fifth, not to be alienated after 1700; the proprietors the remaining fifth. The province was divided checkerboard fashion into squares, first of counties; then each county into eight "signeries" for the proprietors, eight