stances.

Cartesianism, the philosophy of René Descartes (q.v.) and his school, among whom may be reckoned Geulinex, Malebranche Arnauld, Nicole, and even many who stood outside the circle of professional philosophers like Bousset and Fénélon. Spinoza and Leibnitz have much in common with Descartes in standpoint and method, but the divergencies of their systems from his are too great to justify us in classifying them as Cartesians. Among the many noteworthy points in Descartes' system we may mention the deliberate determination to doubt everything that could intelligibly be called in question. This was not scepticism, but a principle of method that he employed to enable him to reach something absolutely certain. This basal fact he found in the famous proposition, "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito ergo sum, je pense donc je suis). No doubt could shake the certainty the ego possesses of its own existence. Moreover, Descartes finds in consciousness certain ideas that are not due to experience and not the product of the imagination. These ideas he pronounces connate, original possessions of the mind. Among them the chief is that of the conception of God as an infinite and all-perfect being. Now the presence of this idea, Descartes argues, proves the actual existence of God as its cause, for no finite being can be the author of the idea of infinity. Having thus established the existence of God, Descartes maintains that the veracity of God warrants us in believing that whatever we perceive through the medium of clear and distinct ideas must be true. Adopting the traditional notion of substance he holds that besides the infinite substance, God, there are two finite created substances, namely, matter or extended substance, and mind or thinking substance. These have no attributes in common, and are absolutely opposed to each other. Thus his philosophy is a Dualism (q.v.). In the human organism these two substances are united. The soul has its seat in the pineal gland, and at this point receives influences from the body, and in turn controls and governs the direction of bodily movements. Descartes' account of the physical world is given in terms of the mechanical theory, the principles of which he was one of the earliest thinkers to formulate clearly. All bodies are extended, figured, substances, without any internal properties or differences. Everything that takes place in the physical world consists in the movement of an extended body. Thus the sciences of physical nature can be comprehended in a mathematical physics which has for its data, the size, shape, velocity (amount of motion) and direction of the various bodies of which the physical world is composed. God at the beginning created bodies with a fixed quantity of motion and rest; and since God is unchanging, this amount is subject to no increase or diminution. From this statement, which is couched in scholastic language, has come, through a closer analysis of conceptions, the modern principle of the conservation of energy. Descartes' view of the relation of body and mind was not satisfactory even to the members of his own school, and led to the doctrine of Occasionalism and with Spinoza to a

Consult: Descartes' Discourse on Method'; 'Meditations on the First Philosophy,' and Principles of Philosophy,' in Veitch's or Torrey's translation; see also Kuno Fischer, 'Descartes and His School,' English translation by J. Gordy; Norman Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy); J. P. Mahaffy, 'Descartes' (in Blackwood Philosophical Classics'), cle Cartesianism' in the Encyclopedia Britannica'; any standard history of philosophy in J. E. CREIGHTON, Professor of Philosophy, Cornell University.

loco.

arti

Car'thage (conjectural native name, the Phoenician Kereth-hadeshoth, new city, from which the Greek Karchedon, and the Roman Carthago are supposed to have been derived), the most famous city of Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich and powerful commercial republic. It was situated on the north coast, not far from the modern Tunis. According to tradition, Dido, fleeing from Tyre, came to this country, where the inhabitants agreed to give her as much land as could be compassed by an ox-hide. Dido cut the hide into small thongs, with which she enclosed a large piece of land. Carthage was founded, according to Aristotle, 287 years later than Utica. Becker supposes it to have been a joint colony or factory, in the AngloIndian sense, of Tyre and Utica. The actual date of its foundation is much contested. The date commonly given is 878 B.C. The history of Carthage is usually divided into three periods. The first is the epoch of its gradual rise; the second that of the struggles with other states occasioned by its extended power; the third that of its decline and fall. These epochs interlock each other, and it is only as a matter of convenience that we can interpose exact dividing dates between them. The first epoch has been extended as far as to 410 B.C.; the sec ond limited to the period chiefly distinguished by wars with Greece, 401-265; the third is the period occupied with the Roman wars, and ending with the fall of Carthage.

Carthage appears early to have been independent of Tyre. There existed, however, a close relationship between them, due to affinity of race and religion. This appears from various incidents in their history, as when the Tyrians refused to follow Cambyses in a contemplated attack on Carthage, and when Alexander, having attacked Tyre, the women and children were sent to Carthage. There is no evidence that the government of Carthage was ever monarchical. She appears soon to have acquired an ascendency over the earlier Tyrian colonies, Utica, Tunis, Hippo, Leptis, and Hadrumetum. This was probably gained without any effort as the result of her material prosperity. The rise of Carthage, then, may be attributed to the superiority of her site for commercial purposes, and the enterprise of her inhabitants. Her relations with the

native populations, as is evident from her subsequent history, would always be those of a superior with inferior races. Some of them were directly subject to Carthage, others contributed to her strength by recruiting her armies, although frequently in hostility with her. She established colonies for commercial purposes along the whole orthern coast of Africa, west of Cyrenaica, and these colonies enabled her to maintain and extend her influence over the native tribes. These colonies, together with most of the earlier Phoenician colonies subject to her, possessed little strength in themselves, and easily fell a prey to an invader; hence they were in the end a source of weakness, although it is not easy to see how her prosperity could have been attained without them. It is only after the north of Africa has thus been placed at her command that Carthage appears formally on the stage of history. One of her earliest recorded contests is that with Cyrene, when the boundary between the two states was fixed, to the advantage of Carthage, at the bottom of the Greater Syrtis, the Carthaginian envoys, according to the traditional story, consenting to be buried on the spot. The immediate wants of the city were provided for by the cultivation of the surrounding territory, which alone was directly dependent on her. Commerce naturally led Carthage to conquest. The advantages, both for the promotion and protection of her trade, of possessing islands in the Mediterranean, led to her first enterprises. Expeditions to Sicily and Sardinia appear to have been undertaken before the middle of the 6th century. The war was carried on in the latter half of this century by Mago, and his sons Hasdrubal and Hamilcar. At the same time a war arose with the Africans on account of the refusal of the Carthaginians to continue the payment of a ground-rent for their city. In this the Carthaginians were unsuccessful, but at a subsequent period they achieved their object. Sardinia was their first conquest. They guarded it with the utmost jealousy. The Romans, by the first treaty 509 B.C., were allowed to touch at it; but this permission was withdrawn in the second. It was the entrepôt of their trade with Europe, and lessened their dependence on their own territory for corn. They founded its capital, Caralis, now Cagliari. They soon after occupied Corsica, where they united with the Tyrrhenians, its previous possessors, against the Greeks. Sicily was already occupied by Greek and Phoenician colonies. The latter, on the decline of Tyre, seem to have fallen under the dominion of Carthage, which gave her a footing on the island. The Greeks were still the more powerful party, and the Carthaginians occupied themselves in promoting dissensions among their cities. When the Greeks were occupied with the Persian invasion, they organized a great expedition to take possession of the island, in which they landed 300,000 men, contributed by all their dependencies. Among these Sardinians, Corsicans, and Ligurians, the latter from the gulfs of Lyons and Genoa, are enumerated. They were totally defeated by Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, and their leader slain, in the battle of Himera, 480 B.C. The Balearic, and many smaller islands in the Mediterranean, had already been occupied by the Carthaginians. Spain had also been colonized by them with peaceable commercial settlements. No other great enterprise took place in the first period of her history.

The war with the Greeks in Sicily was renewed in 409. Hannibal, the son of Gisco, landed an army at Lilybæum, in the spring of that year, and reduced Selinus and Himera. In a subsequent expedition Agrigentum was subdued. A pestilence seconded the efforts of Dionysius and saved Syracuse, 396 B.C. A treaty put an end to the war in 392. The struggle between the Greeks and the Carthaginians continued with varying success throughout the remainder of this period. Its most remarkable event was the invasion of Africa by Agathocles, 310 B.C. Defeated in Sicily by the Carthaginians, to avert the total ruin of his affairs, he raised an army and passed over to Africa. The most extraordinary success awaited him, showing at once the weakness of the hold which Carthage had of her external possessions on the continent, and the danger she constantly encountered from factions and dissensions within the city itself. Agathocles was the precursor of Scipio. After the death of Agathocles the Carthaginians renewed their enterprise in Sicily, and had nearly completed its conquest when the Greeks called in the aid of Pyrrhus, who for a time arrested their progress 277-5 B.C. Notwithstanding numerous and disastrous defeats in their contests with the Greeks, the Carthaginians seemed, after the departure of Pyrrhus, to have the conquest of Sicily at length within their power. A dissension with the Mamertines, their former allies, called in the Romans, and with their invasion, 264 B.C., the third period of Carthaginian history begins.

The first Punic war, in which Rome and Carthage contended for the dominion of Sicily, was prolonged for 23 years, 264 to 241 B.C., and ended, through the exhaustion of the resources of Carthage, in her expulsion from the island. The second Punic war, conducted on the side of the Carthaginians by the genius of Hannibal, lasted 17 years, 218 to 201 B.C., and after just missing the overthrow of Rome, ended in the complete humiliation of Carthage. The policy of Rome, at the end of this war, in placing Carthage, disarmed, at the mercy of her African enemies, and raising her a powerful opponent in Masinissa, occasioned the third Punic war, in which Rome was the aggressor. It lasted only three years, but served to throw a halo of glory round the fall of Carthage, in whose total ruin it ended. This war, begun 150 B.C., ended, in 146 B.C., in the destruction of the last vestige of its power.

The repeated and not always unsuccessful struggles of Carthage with her African neighbors, in the very midst of her schemes of foreign conquest, indicate the marvelous tension to which a power inherently so weak was wrought in those great enterprises which virtually grasped at the supremacy of the world. In this matter the experience of Carthage was not unparalleled by that of Rome; but the great difference between them was that the former was surrounded by alien tribes, the latter by races kindred in language and manners, with whom, after conquest, she could easily unite. The invasion and conquest of Spain, begun by Hamilcar and carried on by Hasdrubal and Hannibal, and which led to the second Punic war, can only be mentioned in passing.

Carthage perished leaving no historians to tell her tale: hence many interesting circumstances in her history can never be known, and

what is preserved has the color of partial and often hostile authority. The constitution of Carthage has occupied much of the attention of scholars, but still remains in many points obscure. The name of king occurs in the Greek accounts of it, and the first Carthaginian general who is recorded to have invaded Sicily and Sardinia is called Malchus, the Phoenician for king, but the monarchical constitution, as commonly understood, never appears to have existed in it. The officers called kings by the Greeks were two in number, the heads of an oligarchical republic, commonly called suffetes, the original name being considered identical with the Hebrew shofetim, judges. These officers were always chosen from the principal families, and were elected annually. It is not known if they could be re-elected. There was a Senate of 300, and the citizens were divided into classes similar to the Roman tribes, curiæ, and gentes. There was a smaller body of 30 chosen from the Senate, sometimes another smaller council of 10. Various other officers are mentioned, but the particulars regarding them are often obscure, and sometimes contradictory.

After the destruction of Carthage, her territory became the Roman province of Africa. A curse was pronounced upon the site of the city, and any attempt to rebuild it prohibited. The attempt was, however, made 24 years after her fall, by Caius Gracchus, one of the leading men of Rome. The same plan was entertained by Julius Cæsar, and it was accomplished by Augustus. The new city became the seat of the proconsul of Old Africa in place of Utica, and continued to flourish till the Vandal invasion. It became distinguished in the annals of the Christian Church. Cyprian was its bishop, and Tertullian is supposed to have been a native of it. It was taken and destroyed by the Arabs, under Hassan, in 647.

The religion of the ancient Carthaginians was essentially that of their Phoenician ancestors. They worshipped Moloch or Baal, to whom they offered human sacrifices; Hercules, the patron deity of Tyre and her colonies; Astarte, and other deities, which were identified with the heavenly bodies, but propitiated by cruel or lascivious rites. Their religion was considerably modified by their intercourse with the Greeks. After their defeat by Gelon he made it a condition of peace with them that they should abandon human sacrifices. Some of their deities were identified with those of the Greeks, and they adopted others of that people, and no doubt received also some of their ideas regarding them. Consult Arnold's and Mommsen's histories of Rome; R. B. Smith Carthage and the Carthaginians'; A. Church, Carthage, or the Empire of Africa'; N. Davis, 'Carthage and Her Remains.

Carthage, Mo., city and county-seat of Jasper County, in the southwestern part of the State; on Spring River, and on the St. Louis & San F., Missouri Pac., Iron M., and Carthage and Western Railways, 150 miles south of Kansas City. It is the centre of a fertile farming and fruit-raising region, and in the vicinity are rich mines of zinc and lead and extensive quarries of marble and building stone. The city exports large shipments of stone, marble, grain, flour, strawberries and other fruits, poultry, live

stock, and hides. It has six large quarries, zinc and stone works, stove, bed-spring, furniture, and canning factories, flour and woolen mills, and machine shops. There are four banks with $400,000 capital and an annual business of $2,000,000; and daily and weekly newspapers. Carthage has a county court-house (cost $100,000), a public library, good public schools, a business college, a piano school, and is the seat of Carthage Collegiate Institute. The following churches are represented: Presbyterian, Cumberland Presbyterian, Congregationalist, Baptist, Methodist (North and South), Episcopal, Christian, Roman Catholic, Dunkard, and Adventist. The site of the city was first settled in 1833 by Henry Piercy. On 28 March 1842 it was made the county-seat and named Carthage. The town was practically destroyed in the Civil War (see CARTHAGE, BATTLE OF) and has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1866. The government is vested in a mayor and ten councilmen elected for a term of two years. Pop. (1910) 9,483. W. J. SEWALL, Editor Carthage Press.

Carthage, Battle of. On 17 June 1861, Gen. Nathaniel Lyon, U. S. A., drove the Confederates from Boonville, Mo., and Claiborne F. Jackson, the disloyal governor of Missouri, ordered a concentration of the State troops, who adhered to him, in the southwestern part of the State, to unite with the Arkansas troops, under the command of Gen. Ben. McCulloch. Anticipating McCulloch's movement into Missouri, Lyon ordered Gen. T. W. Sweeny, with three Union regiments, a small detachment of regulars, and some artillery, from St. Louis to Springfield. These were pushed forward by rail to Rolla and with the 3d Missouri, arrived at Sarcoxie, souththence by road, and 28 June Col. Franz Sigel, west of Springfield, and 15 miles southeast of Carthage, Jasper County. Here Sigel learned that Gen. Sterling Price, with about 800 Missourians, was near Neosho, 22 miles south, and that Jackson, with other State troops, was to the north, 15 or 20 miles beyond Lamar, marching south. He concluded to move first on Price to

disperse him, and then turn north on Jackson, his object being to prevent a junction of the two forces, and to open communication with Lyon, who was marching south from Booneville; but when he started after Price, on the morning of the 29th, he heard that he had retreated to join McCulloch, upon which he turned his thoughts toward Jackson, but continued his march to Neosho, where he was joined a few days later by Col. Salomon, with the 5th (Union) Missouri. Capt. Conrad's company of the 3d was left to hold Neosho, and on the 4th of July Sigel, with the two regiments and two batteries of four guns each, marched to Spring River, a short distance southeast of Carthage, where he heard that Jackson, with over 4,000 men, was but nine miles in his front in the direction of Lamar. On the morning of the 5th, with about 1,000 men and eight guns, he advanced slowly, his train three miles in the rear, driving back the enemy's mounted skirmishers, and about nine miles beyond Carthage came upon Jackson's troops in line of battle on elevated ground, four divisions under coumnand of Gens. James S. Raines, John B. Clark, M. M. Parsons, and W. Y. Slack, numbering nearly 5,000 men, 1,200 of whom were unarmed. About

1,800 were mounted men, armed with shotguns,
and judiciously posted on the flanks of the infan-
try. Jackson had eight guns. After some
skirmishing Sigel, at 10 o'clock, brought up
seven guns and opened fire, which was promptly
returned, but not effectively, for, being in want
of proper ammunition, the Confederate guns
were charged with pieces of chain, iron spikes,
broken iron, and round stones or pebbles. After
a desultory artillery fire of three hours the Con-
federate horsemen advanced from both flanks
and making a wide circuit, to avoid Sigel's artil-
lery, began to close in on him and threaten his
train, whereupon, disposing four guns in rear
and two on either flank he fell back, harassed
at every step, until he reached Carthage, where
he made a stand. But, as the enemy was still
pressing hard on him, working on both flanks
and threatening the road to Springfield, he again
fell back, skirmishing all the way, some two or
three miles beyond Carthage, where pursuit
ended, and Sigel marched to Sarcoxie, and
thence by way of Mount Vernon to Springfield,
where Lyon joined him on the 13th. The Union
loss was 13 killed and 31 wounded, to which
must be added the loss of Conrad's company of
94 men surprised and captured at Neosho, on
the 5th, by Churchill's Arkansas regiment of
McCulloch's command. The Confederate loss
was about 30 killed and 125 wounded. The day
after the engagement Jackson marched from
Carthage and met McCulloch and Price coming
to join him. Consult: Official Records, Vol.
III.; Century 'Battles and Leaders of the Civil
War' (Vol. I.).
E. A. CARMAN.

Carthage, New. See CARTAGENA.
Carthage'na. See CARTAGENA.

Carthu'sians, an order of monks in the Roman Catholic Church, founded in 1084 by Bruno (St. Bruno), a priest of the diocese of Rheims and principal of the theological school there. What specially prompted Bruno to retire from the world was the openly confessed contempt of his bishop for piety and religion. It was a saying of this bishop that while it was a fine thing to be archbishop of Rheims, it was too bad that he had to sing masses. Bruno, with a little band of his friends, who were of the same mind with him, sought solitude in the diocese of Grenoble, and settled in a wilderness near that city called the Cartusium. It was a region of terrible aspect, with naked and precipitous rocks surrounded by sterile hills; and the poet Gray, in the five Latin Alcaic stanzas which in 1741 he wrote in the album of the monastery of Cartusium or La Grande Chartreuse, notes the austere features of the locality in terms which recall the picture drawn of it by Bruno's contemporaries, the invias rupes, the fera juga, the clivos præruptos, the nemorum noctem (impassable cliffs, rugged mountains, precipitous heights, gloomy forests). His institute was the most rigorous of all the monastic orders, and the Carthusians might boast -were they given to boasting that theirs is the only monastic order that never has had to undergo reformation to bring it back to its first rigor. Bruno gave his community a rule of life which was not committed to writing: it prescribed perpetual silence, abstinence from flesh-meats, habitual wearing of the cilicium or horsehair shirt. and the like austerities. But he retained withal his love of

letters, and communicated to his brethren a taste for science and learning. Besides the customary religious exercises of all monastic institutes, his monks were required to occupy a part of the time in manual labor and the other part in the work of transcribing the ancient authors and the more important public documents and records of the time. Before long there was founded in the wilderness of the Cartusium a collateral branch for women recluses, under substantially the same rule.

A written rule was given to the Carthusians' by Guigo, fifth prior of the Cartusium-the head, of a Carthusian institute is always prior, not It forbids the practice of abbotin 1129. austerities not prescribed by the founder and establishes in perpetuity the provisions of Bruno's rule. Guigo wrote a Manual for Monks' in which he names reading, meditation, prayer, and contemplation as the means of reaching the perfection of the Christian and religious life. The original establishment, the Cartusium, or La house of the order continuously, the troublous time of the Revolution expted, down to the year 1903, when under the law for regulation or suppression of monastic houses in France, the religious community was dispossessed and turned out of the home in which it had lived during more than 800 years. The latest rule of the order of Carthusians dates from 1581. In many respects it is not as rigorous as the rule given by Bruno and Guigo. The use of linen is still, forbidden, the abstinence from flesh-meats is still enforced, as is also the rule of silence. The Carthusian "house" is still an assembly of detached small houses or cells comprised within an enclosure, with a patch of ground around each little house. The general of the Carthusians resides rather till the expulsion of the inmates did reside - - at La Grande Chartreuse. not at Rome, as do the generals of most of the religious orders.

Grande Chartreuse, contributed to the mother

Cartier, SIR George Etienne, Canadian statesman: b. St. Antoine, Verchères County,

Quebec, 6 Sept. 1814; d. London, 21 May 1873 He claimed descent from the family to which Jacques Cartier belonged; was among the followers of Papineau in the rebellion of 1837. distinguishing himself for his courage, but ultimately was obliged to take refuge in the United States. Returning when amnesty was decreed, he resumed the practise of law and attained to some eminence in his profession. He entered the Canadian Parliament as a Conservative in 1848, became a Cabinet Minister in 1855, and from that time till his death was closely associated with the English-speaking Conservative leader, Sir John A. Macdonald (q.v.). Cartier was Prime Minister 1858-62. When Canadian Federation was set on foot he took a prominent, part in the negotiations, and it was under his leadership, aided by the church, that Frenchspeaking Canada was reconciled to the Federall system. He carried on the negotiations with the Hudson Bay Co. which resulted in the surrender to Canada of the company's rights in the Northwest, and it was he who carried though the Canadian Parliament the bill creating the Province of Manitoba. This bill embodied elaborate safe-guards for Roman Catholic separate schools, but its provisions were swent away in the well-known later agitation for a uniform school system in Manitoba.

Per

GEORGE M. WRONG, Professor of History, University of Toronto. Cartier, Jacques, French navigator: b. St. Malo, 31 Dec. 1491; d. 1557. After gaining some experience in fishing-fleets off the Labrador coast, he commanded an expedition to North America in 1534, entering the Strait of Belle Isle, and took possession of the mainland of Canada in the name of Francis I. The next year he sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as the present Montreal. In 1541 he went out as captain-general in command of a first detachment of ships to prepare the way for Roberval, who had been named viceroy. Finding, however, that his chief did not arrive, after he had waited some time, he returned to St. Malo. The natives usually received him well, but when about to return from his second voyage he treacherously kidnapped Donnaconna, one of the chiefs, and some others, in order to show them in his native country. His book, 'Discours du Voyage fait par le Capitaine Jacques Cartier aux Terres neufves de Canada,' was published in 1598.

Cartilage, one of the primary tissues of animal structures, of the connective-tissue class, characterized by its peculiar basement substance. The most abundant form of cartilage is the hyaline variety, but there are also fibrous and fibro-elastic cartilages. Hyaline cartilage, particularly abundant on the ends of the bones, is whitish and translucent, firm and elastic. The cells are imbedded in an abundant homogeneous basement substance which is made up largely of chondrin. Fibrous cartilage is less abundant, and its basement substance is fibrillated. It is found about the intervertebral cartilage masses, about the joints, and around the tendons of some of the larger muscles. The fibro-elastic form is found only in certain structures,—the epiglottis, the larynx, the Eustachian tube, and in the external ear. Cartilage tissues protect the ends of the long bones by reason of their firm elasticity. They provide strong, firm, and yet movable structures where bone, by reason of its rigidity, would not be serviceable, as in the epiglottis, larynx, etc.

Carton, Florent. See Dancourt.
Carton, Sydney, the hero in Dickens'

'Tale of Two Cities.'

Cartoon (It. cartone, from Lat. charta, paper), a term having various significations. In painting, it denotes a sketch on thick paper, pasteboard, or other material, used as a model for a large picture, especially in fresco, oil, tapestry, and sometimes in glass and mosaic. In fresco painting, cartoons are particularly useful, because in this a quick process is necessary, and

cartoons, the artist commonly traces them through, covering the back of the design with black-lead or red chalk; then, laying the picture on the wall or other matter, he passes lightly over each stroke of the design with a point, which leaves an impression of the color on the plate or wall; or the outlines of the figures are pricked with a needle, and then, the cartoon being placed against the wall, a bag of coal-dust is drawn over the holes, in order to transfer the outlines to the wall. In fresco painting, the figures were formerly cut out and fixed firmly on the moist plaster. The painter then traced their contour with a pencil of wood or iron, so that the outlines of the figures appeared on the fresh plaster, with a slight but distinct impression, when the cartoon was taken away. In the manufacture of a certain kind of tapestry the figures are still cut out, and laid behind or under the woof, by which the artist directs his operations. In this case the cartoons must be colored. In very modern times the term is commonly applied to pictures caricaturing notable characters or events of the moment. See CARICATURE AND CARICATURISTS.

The most famous cartoons in existence are those executed by Raphael for the celebrated tapestries of the Vatican, which were made at Arras, and hence called Arazzi. Two sets of these tapestries were ordered by Leo. X., one for the Vatican and the other for presentation to King Henry VIII. The second set, or fragments of it, are still in existence on the Continent. The cartoons lay for a time neglected at Arras, and that out of 25, the original number, only seven have repeatedly fallen into neglect again, so remain, and these have had to be restored. They were purchased at the advice of Rubens by Charles I. about 1630. On the sale of his effects they were purchased by the order of Cromwell for the nation, but again fell into neglect in the time of Charles II. William III. had them restored, and built a gallery for them at Hampton Court, where they remained, until in 1865 they were lent to the South Kensington Museum. The subjects of the seven are: (1) Paul Preaching at Athens; (2) The Death of Ananias; (3) Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness; (4) Christ's Charge to Peter; (5) The Sacrifice at Lystra; (6) Peter and John Healing the Cripple at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple; (7) The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. The cartoons have been repeatedly engraved, among others by Dorigny, Holloway, and Gribelin. They have also been extensively made known by photographs.

The cartoon of the School of Athens, carried to Paris by the French, and a fragment of the Battle of Maxentius and Constantine, are preserved in the Ambrosian Gallery at Milan. There are, likewise, cartoons by Giulio Romano in the Sala Borgia, by Domenichino and other Italian masters, who caused their pictures to be executed, in a great degree, by their scholars, after these cartoons. The value set upon cartoons by the old Italian masters may be seen by Giovanni Armenini's Precetti dello Pittura) (1687). In later times large paintings, particularly in fresco, were not executed so frequently. The artists also labored with less care, and formed their great works more from small sketches. modern times some German artists have prepared accurate cartoons. Among them is Cornelius,

In