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CERAMICS

ledge of Egyptian work. In Babylonia and Assyria the main interest lies in the fact that clay was used as a means of writing. Clay tablets and cylinders were prepared and with angular punches the cuneiform characters were impressed. The tablet being fired the writing became indelible. Vast stores of these clay records have been discovered and are being deciphered.

In Greece the fictile art was developed in a remarkable degree. A high standard of criticism prevailed and the arts reached great perfection. Greek pottery ranges from 700 to 200 B.C. The early work was crude, almost barbaric. The clay was of a pale salmon tint deepening to a warm brown. Upon the polished surface decorative patterns were traced in black. Geometric designs occupied the attention of one section, others attempted a more florid treatment developing into silhouettes of birds and animals. The human figure eventually prevailed and scenes from mythology and local history appeared. The great change came when, instead of black figures on a red background, the figures were outlined and the background painted in black. This enabled details of feature and drapery to be executed with rare fidelity, and the culminating point of Greek pottery was reached. There are some 15,000 Greek vases in existence and the larger number of them are of superior workmanship.

The pottery of the Romans exists in great abundance, but few pieces are remarkable for excellence of workmanship. The Romans possessed an abundance of glass and the rude pottery of the household was displaced at the table of the patrician. Roman pottery is remarkable for its wide distribution. Their armies seem to have been regularly accompanied by potters. Germany, France, and Great Britain are covered with fragments of Roman wares made for the most part from local clay. A remarkable variety of pottery is that known as Samian, or more correctly, as Aretine ware. This is made of clay of a brilliant red color, and as molds and waste pieces have been found in England and France the presumption is that the clay as well as the workman was imported. No such clay is known to exist now and the wares are all made of the same material. The Roman "slip painted" or Castor ware was the ancestor, though after a long interval, of the English clay decorated pieces which gave the potter's art so firm a hold on the English people and eventually brought the knowledge of clay working to the American colonists.

In the far East a different line was being wrought out. The pottery of India and Persia was the descendant of Egyptian blue-glazed ware. The characteristic which distinguishes these wares from the productions of Greece and Rome is the glaze. Very early in the history of the art it was found necessary to use some impervious coating before the pottery could be extensively used, but in the East a covering of glaze was used for its decorative effect. This fact led to an important development. A glaze upon brown or red clay is not always pleasing, and therefore the expedient was adopted of coating the clay with a light-colored slip or engobe. Thus Oriental engobe ware has become a recognized type of ceramic production. Each Eastern nation in turn worked on similar lines. India affected colored glazes well known in the rich

blue roofing tiles of Multan. Persia adopted a delicate fanciful tracery of floral motif, the outlines being filled in with light blue and gray. A beautiful pottery, almost porcelain, was made in Persia and exported from the port of Gombron, hence known as Gombroon ware. The characteristic feature was a series of fine perforations which were filled with glaze, producing a transparent pattern upon a slightly translucent ground.

Damascus produced many fine pieces of engobe ware, the treatment being more forceful than that of Persia. In the island of Rhodes and in certain neighboring localities variety was given by the adoption of red in the decoration. This red consisted of a natural earth. The development of the peculiar colors found on this ware is due to the absence of lead oxide from the glaze. (See GLAZE.) The Arabians and Moors carried the knowledge of pottery along the north coast of Africa, and when, in the 8th century, the former people invaded Spain they brought the art with them. It was not, however, until the Moorish invasion in the 12th century, and the building of the Alhambra palace, that any great progress was made. A notable change took place in the introduction of tin oxide as a glaze constituent. The knowledge of this substance existed farther east, but in Spain both tin and lead were found in abundance. The consequence was that the intermediate coating or engobe was discarded and the glaze itself rendered opaque by tin oxide. This of course involved a different treatment of color and as the art spread from Spain to Italy the great schools of Italian Majolica grew up. (See MAJOLICA.) In France some variations took place and in Germany the main product was stoneware (q.v.).

In England the ceramic art had never been forgotten. The departure of the Romans had caused a relapse and neither Anglo-Saxon nor Norman pottery was of any importance. About the Tudor period, however, a revival took place. The potters had foregathered in Staffordshire, where there was an abundance of clay, and there they produced the slip decorated, the combed, marbled, and tortoise-shell wares which are so characteristic of the time. A great stimulus was given by the arrival of two Dutchmen named Glers. These brothers were skilful potters and speedily influenced the quality of the claywares manufactured. They, in fact, prepared the way for Josiah Wedgwood, who established the English factory system and made it possible for skilled men to combine their efforts in the production of fine pottery. See WEDGWOOD.

In America the history of the ceramic art may be conveniently, if somewhat arbitrarily, divided into four epochs. (1) The work of the aborigines. (2) From Colonial times until 1840. (3) From 1840 to 1880. (4) The present day.

The work of the natives was varied and interesting. The wheel seems never to have been used; but, on the other hand, the process of building pottery by means of coils of clay was brought to great perfection. Barber ('Pottery and Porcelain of United States') divides preColumbian pottery into three groups, (1) the crude work of the eastern coast; (2) the better wares of the mound builders, and (3) the superior productions of the more civilized tribes of the west.

CERAMICS

The eastern tribes were scarcely more than savages, even in the day of the Pilgrims. The pottery was rude in the extreme and scarcely burned. So fragile indeed that but few examples remain. The Wyoming Historical and Geological Society of Wilkesbarre, Wyoming County, Pa., have given attention to the preservation of these records, and they possess some unique specimens. Clay pipes were in common use among the Indians, and, in fact, were put in circulation as a kind of currency. Some of the Indian women even now in their reservations indulge in the pastime of pottery-making, but the manufacture has almost died out.

The pottery of the mound-builders forms an extensive study in itself. In addition to the building of plain forms considerable skill in modeling was developed. Not only were animal and bird forms produced, with more or less fidelity, but the human face, in some cases full of expression, was constantly used as a relief embellishment. Students distinguish between painted and unpainted wares, but there is divided opinion as to whether these classes were contemporaneous or divided.

Through the States of Colorado and Utah, and in the great valleys of the San Juan, the Colorado and the Rio Grande, are found numerous relics of the work of the house-building tribes. This pottery is far in advance of either of the other types. In some cases the structure of the soils is boldly asserted as a decoration, sometimes alone and often in conjunction with painting. Skill in modeling was well developed, but the work is archaic in type. Drawings of birds and beasts are frequently used in decoration and natural clays find frequent employment as colors. There is no doubt that the principles of decoration by which the contemporary basket work was embellished inspired much of the clay treatment.

Even the earliest settlers engaged more or less in clay work. Brick and tile were, naturally, their first products. See BRICK; ROOFING TILE.

The first pottery for white or cream wares was built at Burlington, N. J., about the year 1684. The abundant clays of New Jersey attracted the attention of many who had been concerned with pottery in the old country, and for nearly two hundred years the work was in close imitation of that manufactured in England. Nearly all the distinctive styles of the period were attempted. Slip painting, sgraffito, stoneware, and queensware were all pursued with more or less success, both English and German potters being at work. In some parts of the country, notably in eastern Ohio, pottery-making became a home industry. Many a barn held a "kick" wheel, and a small kiln served to finish the work. Farmers divided their time between clay and soil; and, building rough flat-boats, would float their wares down the river for sale in the large towns.

The third epoch may be described as that of the factory. The large pottery centres, East Liverpool, Ohio, and Trenton, N. J., were established about the beginning of the period. It may also be characterized as the era of bad quality. The potters were new to the local materials. Clays were carelessly mined and badly prepared, and in many cases the men who attempted to make pottery were ignorant of anything but the processes of manipulation. It

is not strange, therefore, to find that the work of this period was very inferior, nor to learn that those who made it were inordinately vain of their productions. Every now and then some enterprising manufacturer would attempt an important piece of work, but the results were uniformly disastrous. There is almost nothing to show for the work of these years but a series of misdirected efforts.

On

The cause of the renaissance which, happily for the country, at length dawned, was the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. There, for the first time, non-traveling Americans were brought face to face with the productions of Europe, and the contrast with American work was very marked. The effect of the lesson was not immediate. Some manufacturers declined to be aroused, they were making money under a high protective tariff and were content to produce inferior wares. Those upon whom the influence was strongest were private individuals, painters, sculptors, and amateurs. A company of women got together and eventually established the Rookwood Pottery. (See ROOKWOOD.) somewhat similar lines several small manufactories of glazed pottery have since been opened, among which are the Grueby faience, Boston; the Merrimac pottery, Newburyport, Mass.; Lonhuda ware, Steubenville, Ohio; Lonelsa ware, Zanesville, Ohio. During this period a number of English decorators sought employment in this country. They were somewhat stereotyped in style and secured short engagements in factory after factory. A few pieces were produced at each, and for some reason the output ceased. A number of similar works are therefore extant. They have been made in many places of differently composed wares, but all are decorated by the same band of artists. The identification of such wares becomes very difficult therefore, but they remain as an evidence of a desire on the part of the manufacturers for a higher grade of work.

The pottery centres of East Liverpool, Ohio, and Trenton, N. J., have grown into large and prosperous communities. A number of English workmen have settled in each place, and the English accent and English sports flourish. In each city there are upward of 40 establishments directly engaged in producing ceramic wares and the accessories thereto.

The types of ware included in the term pottery range themselves according to color, structure, use, and locality. Thus Rockingham, yellow ware, and cream color, abbreviated to C. C., are definitions arising from color. Granite, ironstone, opaque china, and hotel china, are judged by structure, a fine vitreous body; the term "use" defines sanitary and railroad ware, mortars and chemical stoneware, while locality gives names to Belleek, Rookwood, and other fancy

wares.

C. C. ware is the lineal descendant of English earthenware; the materials used are similar (see POTTERY), but a higher temperature is uniformly employed in America. The term is no longer accurate. The cream color was due to the natural tint of the clays of which even the best contain a small percentage of iron, but the exigencies of trade have forced the potters to neutralize this by the addition of a blue stain. C. C. therefore can no longer be distinguished by its color.

CERAMIC SOCIETY-CERATOSA

Rockingham and yellow wares are virtually the same wherever made. Common buff-burning clays are used, and in the former ware the glaze is stained dark-brown by the use of manganese; in the latter a cheap lead glaze over the yellowish clay intensifies the color. Jet ware is usually made from a red clay covered with a blue glaze. In the production of sanitary ware America holds the field. Great demands have been made upon the potters on account of increased domestic comforts and the elaboration of railroad fittings. The earthenware necessaries of kitchen and bathroom have been brought to great perfection, both in composition of body and glaze and in methods of manufacture. See ENAMELED

FOTTERY.

No factory of any repute is without a complete plumber's apparatus by which every piece is tested for its action with water before being shipped.

Hotel china has also been brought to a highly satisfactory point. The demand of hotels and restaurants for a tough ware led a number of manufacturers into the experimental field. Costly as was the process, one after another has come forth successful. The conclusion to which all have arrived is that high temperature is the secret of success. The mixture of materials must of course be adjusted to suit the extreme heat, and there is no doubt that tons of pottery have been destroyed before the correct proportions were found. This ware is a distinctive American product. It can be matched against any pottery in the world of its own class without risk of failure. It has little or no pretence to artistic merit, for the decorations are, for the most part, inexpensive, but for withstanding the knocks of a strenuous life there is nothing so good. The principal factories making this ware are the Greenwood Pottery, the Lamberton Works, and the Crescent Pottery, of Trenton; the Knowles, Taylor & Knowles Company, of East Liverpool, Ohio; and the Onondaga Pottery, of Syracuse, N. Y.

Belleek ware had its origin in the town of that name in Fermanagh, Ireland, and the first ware made in America of this type was compounded by men who had worked in the old country, and was avowedly an imitation of the Irish product. It, however, speedily assumed a character of its own and was pursued on entirely different lines. The ware belongs to the class of soft porcelain. It is light, translucent and of a pale creamy color. The body is largely composed of feldspar, which is mined in Maine and Connecticut in great abundance. The glaze is a fusible compound in which lead oxide is largely present. This porcelain is greatly in demand for over-glaze painting. The soft glaze enables almost any ceramic color to be melted to a brilliant surface in any of the ordinary studio kilns. The best Belleek is made by the Ceramic Art Company and the Willetts Manufacturing Company, of Trenton, N. J.

An account of American ceramics would not be complete without a word on the enthusiasm for china-painting and clay-working which has possessed American women for the last two decades. The movement took serious shape soon after the Centennial Exposition, and may be said to have reached its height in 1893. In that year at the World's Fair a great quantity of so-called "amateur painting" was exhibited, and some of it was severely criticised.

The

criticism was taken to heart and from that time the work greatly improved. Study-clubs were formed and more serious work undertaken, culminating, in a number of instances, in women undertaking to produce their wares from the clay, instead of being content to paint upon purchased pieces. This movement is yet in its infancy and must eventually exercise a large influence upon the quality of American claywork. CHARLES F. BINNS,

New York State School of Ceramics. American, a body of scientific clay-workers Ceramic (se- or ke-răm'ik) Society, The organized in 1899. The Transactions of the Society already form the most complete record of progress in ceramic knowledge published in the English language.

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AgCl. It crystallizes in the isometric system, Cerar'gyrite, native chloride of silver, and is cubical in general habit. It has a specific gravity of 5.55, and is quite soft, with grayish color and a resinous lustre. Upon exposure to light its color changes to a violetbrown. It occurs in Mexico, in western South America, in Norway, and in the Ural Mountains. In the United States it is found in Idaho, Utah, Colorado, Nevada, and Arizona. When' found in quantity it is valuable as an ore of silver.

Cerastes, a genus of African vipers, remarkable for their fatal venom, and for two little horns formed by the scales above the eyes. Hence they have received the name of horned vipers. The tail is very distinct from the body. C. cornutus is the horned viper of northern Africa, a species known to the ancients. There are several other species.

Cerasus, a genus of trees, the cherries, of the order Rosacea, now always regarded as a section of the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other sections by the smooth, bloomless fruit, conduplicate vernation, and other characters. See CHERRY.

States Pharmacopoeia. They are unctous subCerates, official preparations of the United stances, consisting of oil or lard mixed with wax, spermaceti, or resin, to which various medicines may be added. In consistency they are harder than ointments and softer than plasters, and should be capable of being spread at ordinary temperatures on cloth, and should not melt at the temperature of the human body.

Ceratodus, sĕr'a-tō-dus, a genus of fishes belonging to the Dipnoi or lung-fishes. It is the barramunda or native salmon of the Australian rivers, measures from three to six feet in length, and forms an interesting connecting link between the oldest surviving group of fishes and the lowest air-breathing animals. It is said to leave the water and go on the flats after vegetable food, but its traveling powers cannot be great.

Cerato'sa, certain sponges in which the skeleton or solid support is horny. Another name is Ceratospongia. The skeleton consists of spongin, which differs chemically from the substance of true horn (keratin). The spongin is deposited in long fibres by peculiar cells (spongioblasts). The fibres interlace, branch, and unite into the supporting framework of the sponge. Examples of the horny or fibrous sponges are the bath-sponges, such as Euspongia officinalis, varieties of which occur in the Medi

CERATOSAURUS-CEREALS

terranean and about the West Indies, Florida, etc. See SPONGE.

Ceratosaurus, se-ra-to-sôr'us, a carnivorous dinosaur (see DINOSAURIA), resembling Allosaurus (q.v.), but of smaller size and with small horns over the eyes and on the nasal bones. It is found in the Como formation of Wyoming (Upper Jurassic Period).

Ceraunian (se-râ'ni-an) Mountains, in classical geography, (1) a mountain range in the southeastern part of the Caucasus Mountains, the exact position of which is not known; (2) a chain of mountains in Epirus, northern Greece, extending to the Adriatic and forming the peninsula Acroceraunium (q.v.). The mountains themselves are also called Acrocerau

nia.

Cerberus, sèr'bě-rus, in Greek myths, a three-headed dog, with snakes for hair. Hesiod describes him as fifty-headed, and states him to have been the offspring of Echidna by Typhon, the most terrible of the giants that attempted to storm heaven; but later writers give him

only three heads. At his bark hell trembled, and when loosed from his hundred chains, even the Furies could not tame him. He watched the entrance of Tartarus, or the regions of the dead, and fawned on those who entered, but seized and devoured those who attempted to return. He was subdued by Heracles (Hercules).

Cercaria, sĕr-kā'ri-a, the so-called "nurse" of the fluke-worm (q.v.) and other trematode parasites. The body is tadpole-like in shape, with an anterior and posterior sucker, a mouth and pharynx, and a forked intestine. The Cercaria are developed in the body of the parent-nurse (redia). Escaping from the redia, the cercaria, swimming about in pools or ponds, forces its way into the body of some snail, which forms its first host. Then, losing the tail, it becomes encysted, attached to blades of grass or herbage. The transference of the larval fluke to its final host, the sheep, is effected if the latter swallow the grass on which the cercaria has become encysted. The young fluke then escapes from the cyst, and forces its way up the bile-ducts to the liver, in which it rapidly grows, and developing reproductive organs, attains the adult condition. See TREMA

TODA.

Cercelée, sĕr-së-lå, or Recercelée, in heraldry, applied to a cross, the ends of which are curled or twisted, like a ram's horn.

Cercis, sĕr'sis, a genus of plants of the order Leguminosa. C. canadensis, redbud, or Judas-tree, is a small ornamental tree, often cultivated, but growing wild from New York south to Florida and west to Minnesota, Kansas, and Louisiana. C. siliquastrum, a native of the south of Europe, and of several countries in Asia, is a handsome, low tree with a spreading head.

The leaves are remarkable for their unusual shape; they are of a pale, bluish-green color on the upper side, and sea-green on the under. The flowers, which have an agreeable acid taste, are often mixed in salads, and the flower-buds are pickled. The genus received the name of the Judas-tree from the tradition that it was upon a specimen of it, near Jerusalem, that Judas hanged himself.

Cercopithecida, sèr-kō-pi-the'si-dě, a family of primates, including all the Old World monkeys, except the anthropoid apes. The various groups and species may be found described under their names. See also MONKEY.

Cer'cyon, a famous robber, killed by Theseus.

Cerdic, kér'dik, king of the West Saxons: d. 534. He was a Saxon earldorman who invaded England in 495, and after gradually fighting his way and extending his conquests, established the kingdom of Wessex about 519. He fered a severe defeat from the Britons in 520 won a great battle at Charford in 519, but sufIn 530 he conquered the Isle of Wight. At his at Mount Badon, or Badbury, in Dorsetshire. death his kingdom extended over the present counties of Berkshire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and Hampshire (including the Isle of Wight).

Cerdo'nians, an ancient sect, whose belief, fused mixture of Christian dogmas with Oriental half philosophical, half religious, was a condualism and Gnostic ideas. Their founder, Cerdo, was a Syrian, who came to Rome about the year 139 under the pontificate of Hyginus. He maintained the existence of the Zoroastrian two principles, one of good and the other of evil. The latter, according to him, was the creator of the world and the God and lawgiver of the Jews. The former was the creator of Jesus Christ, whose incarnation, sufferings, and death were only sensible appearances, and not vital facts. His disciples became confounded with those of Marcion, who some years later propagated similar opinions.

Céré, Jean Nicolas, zhon nĭk-ō-lä sā-rā, French botanist: b. Isle of France 1737; d. there 2 May 1810. Under the direction of the French government he greatly extended the culture of spices in the Isle of France (now Mauritius), when that island was a French dependency. The agricultural society of Paris published his essay on the culture of rice, and awarded him a medal; and Napoleon confirmed him in his position as director of the botanical garden of the Isle of France, and conferred on him a pension of $120. A tree of the island has been called after him, Cerea.

Cere, ser, the naked skin or fleshy sheath that covers the base of the upper mandible in some birds, through which it is supposed that a tactile sense is exercised.

Cerealia, se-re-a'li-a (from Ceres, the goddess of the fields and of fruits) signified the productions of agriculture, also the festivals of Ceres, celebrated at Rome. The time at which they were celebrated is not known. According

to

some it was the Ides (13th) of April; according to others the 7th of the same month.

Ce'reals, a term derived from Ceres, the goddess of corn. Though sometimes extended to leguminous plants, as beans, lentils, etc., it is more usually and properly confined to the Graminea, as wheat, barley, rye, and oats, which are used as human food. In agriculture they are usually considered as exhausting crops, partly on account of their trailing roots; their mode of nutrition, which is effected more by the roots than by the leaves; their slender stems, which allow weeds to grow up and rob the soil; and from the necessity of allowing them to attain full maturity before they are reaped..

CEREALS-CEREMONIAL OF THE EUROPEAN POWERS

Accordingly it is considered one of the rules of good husbandry not to take two cereal or white crops in succession, but to make them alternate with root crops, which, growing in rows at some distance apart from each other, have the additional advantage of allowing weeds to be destroyed by means of repeated hoeings.

Cereals, or Cereal Plants, the grasses cultivated for their seeds which are used as food by man and animals. Sometimes also called bread-plants and, in Europe, corn-plants. The principal ones are treated in separate articles. See BARLEY; MAIZE; MILLET; OATS; RICE; RYE; SORGHUM; WHEAT.

Cerebellum, sĕr-e-běl'ům ("the little brain") that portion of the brain situated behind and beneath the cerebrum. It is connected with the main brain mass by means of two feet or stems, the cerebellar peduncles, and is separated from the main brain mass in the cranial cavity by a thick layer of connective tissue, the tentorium cerebelli. It is also connected with the pons by a pair of middle peduncles, and with the medulla oblongata by the inferior peduncles. It thus forms a very integral portion of the brain mass. In general the form of the cerebellum in human beings is a flattened ovoid measuring from eight to ten centimeters from side to side, five to six centimeters from before backward, and five centimeters vertically. Its average weight is about 140 grams, which is one eighth of the weight of the whole cerebrospinal axis. It is larger and heavier in the male than in the female, and is relatively larger in the adult than in the child. Like the brain, it is divided up into a number of lobes, of which three are most prominent, the middle portion, or vermis, and the two lateral lobes. The minute structure of the cerebellum is somewhat similar to that of the cerebrum, but there are certainly very marked differences, particularly in the development of a layer of very characteristic cells, the Purkinje cells. The interior of the cerebellum contains masses of gray matter, or nuclei. These are the dentate nucleus, the nucleus emboliformis, nucleus globosus, and the nucleus fastigii in the vermis. Through the inferior, middle, and superior peduncles fibres pass to and from the cerebrum, pons, medulla, and spinal cord, thus bringing the cerebellum into organic union with the rest of the nervous system. The functions of the cerebellum are not yet completely known, but it is certain that the cerebellum has a number of important functions, chief among which are those connected with locomotion and the act of balancing. Affections of the cerebellum often result in a peculiar form of staggering, known as cerebellar ataxia. See BRAIN.

Cerebral Hemorrhage.

EASES OF.

nitrogenous powder that is obtained by heating ox-brain with baryta, washing, drying, and finally extracting with alcohol. The cholesterin that is also present in the product so obtained may be removed by the action of ether, in which cerebrin is insoluble. Cerebrin does not combine with acids or bases, but by prolonged boiling with hydrochloric acid it is converted into a substance that can reduce Fehling's solution.

Cer'ebro-spi'nal, pertaining to the brain. and spinal cord together, looked on as forming one nerve mass.

TIS.

Cerebro-spinal Fluid. See BRAIN.
Cerebro-spinal Meningitis. See MENINGI-

Cerebrum. See BRAIN.

Ceremonial of the European Powers, certain forms of international etiquette or usage, which have arisen in Europe during modern times. No independent state can actually have precedence of another; but as the weaker seek the protection and friendship of the more powerful, there arises a priority of rank. This has occasioned the gradual establishment of dignities, rank, and acts of respect to states, their rulers, and representatives, by which means (in contradistinction to the internal etiquette of a state) an international ceremonial has been formed, which has been the source of confusion and war, and to the observance of which far more consideration is often paid than to the fulfilment of the most sacred contracts. Louis XIV. carried this folly further, perhaps, than any one before or after him. To this international ceremonial belong:

1. Titles of rulers. Accident made the imperial and regal titles the highest, and thus conferred advantages apart from the power of the princes. After Charlemagne, the emperors of the Romans were considered as the sovereigns of Christendom, maintained the highest rank, and even asserted the dependence of the kings on themselves. For this reason several kings in the Middle Ages, to demonstrate their independence, likewise gave their crowns the title of "imperial.» England, for example, in all its public acts, is still styled the "imperial crown." The kings of France received from the Turks and Africans a title equivalent to emperor of France. In progress of time the kings were less willing to concede to the imperial title, of itself, superiority to the royal.

2. Acknowledgment of the titles and rank of rulers. Formerly the Popes and emperors arrogated the right of granting these dignities; but the principle was afterward established, that every people could grant to its rulers at pleasure a title, the recognition of which rests See BRAIN, Dis- on the pleasure of other powers, and on treaties. Some titles were therefore never recognized, or This was the case with the royal title of Prusnot till after the lapse of considerable time. sia, the imperial title of Russia, the new titles of German princes, etc.

Cerebra'tion, an old term, much used in the early physiologies, designating an automatic reflex series of brain actions taking place be

low the threshhold of consciousness. See CONSCIOUSNESS.

Cer'ebrin, ser'e-brin, a name that has been applied, at different times and by different chemists, to various substances that are obtainable from the brain and other parts of the nervous system by extraction with alcohol. It is now usually applied to a white, crystalline,

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3. Marks of respect conformable to the rank and titles of sovereigns. To the "royal" prerogatives, so called (conceded, however, to various states which were neither kingdoms nor empires, such as Venice, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the electorates), pertained the right of sending ambassadors of the first class, etc. In connection with this there is a much contested

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