united with the Spanish junta against Joseph, and was sent by them on a mission to London, where in 1808 he published his celebrated work on Spanish affairs, referring more especially to the proceedings at Bayonne. After the Restoration he for some time maintained a great influence over Ferdinand, but on his opposing the marriage of the latter with a princess of Portugal he lost favor, was deprived of his office of secretary of state, and sent as ambassador to Naples and Vienna. On being recalled in 1820 he retired to private life.

Cevallos, Pedro Fermin, Ecuadorian law yer and historian: b. Ambato about 1814. Besides holding several high professional positions he was a senator in 1867. His principal work is: 'Resumen de las historia del Ecuador, in five

volumes.

Cévennes, să-věn, France, a southern district, which at one time formed the northern part of the government of Languedoc. During the wars against the Albigenses its mountains and valleys were the asylum of numerous persons who had renounced many of the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. It now forms part of departments Haute-Loire, Loire, Ardèche, Gard, and Aveyron.

Cévennes, sev-en' (ancient CEBENNA), the chief mountain range in the south of France. With its continuations and offsets, it forms the watershed between the river systems of the Rhone and the Loire and Garonne. Its general direction is from northeast to southwest, beginning at the southern extremity of the Lyonnais Mountains, and extending under different local names as far as the Canal du Midi, which divides it from the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. The Cévennes extend for over 150 miles, through or into nine departments, the central mass lying in Lozère and Ardèche, where Mount Lozère attains 5,584 feet, and Mount Mézen (the culminating point of the chain) 5,754 feet. The average height is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. The mountains consist chiefly of Primary rocks, covered with Tertiary formations, which in many places are interrupted by volcanic rocks.

Ceylon (native SINGHALA, ancient TAPROBANE, an island possession and crown colony of Great Britain, in the Indian Ocean, about 60 miles southeast of the southern extremity of Hindustan, from which it is separated by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait. It lies between lat. 5° 56′ and 9° 50′ N., and between lon. 80° and 82° E., having the shape of a pear, with the broad end south. Length, about 270 miles north to south; average breadth, 100 miles; area, 25,364 square miles. The northern and northwestern coasts are flat and monotonous, those on the south and east bold and rocky, presenting a highly picturesque appearance, which is further heightened by the exuberant vegetation, the noble palm forests, the luxuriant corn fields, and the verdant slopes of the mountains enameled with bright flowers, herbs, and creeping plants, whose delicious perfume spreads far and wide. Many parts of the coast, at its southern and northern extremities are studded with small, rocky, and verdant islands, some of them overgrown with palms, and presenting a singularly beautiful appearance. At Trincomalee, on the northeastern coast, there is one of

the finest natural harbors in the world; at Galle on the southern coast there is also a harbor; while the harbor at Colombo, the capital, is capable of admitting the largest vessels, and is now the regular calling-station for mail steamers to and from Calcutta, China, and Australia. Between the islands of Manaar on the northwestern coast of Ceylon and the island of Ramiseram on the coast of India, is a ridge of sandbanks called Adam's Bridge, which nearly connects Ceylon with the continent, being intersected only by three narrow shallow passages, feet of water at full tide. These channels adthe remainder being covered with two or three mit only very small vessels, but ships of some size can get through between Ramiseram and the mainland; and schemes for the passage of larger vessels have been projected, as also for a railroad along Adam's Bridge.

Mountains.-The mountainous regions of Ceylon are confined to the centre of the south and broader part of the island. They gradually diminish to hills of moderate elevation as they recede from the central mass, and are succeeded on the western side by a flat tract extending to the coast. Their average elevation is somewhere about 2,000 feet, but there are several summits upward of 7,000 and 8,000 feet high. The highest summit is Pedrotallagalla (8,260), but Adam's Peak, reaching 7,420 feet, is the most remarkable from its conical form, the distance from which it is visible from the sea, and from the sacred associations with which it is connected, the summit being the point from which Buddha, according to his followers, ascended to heaven, a gigantic footprint bearing testimony to the fact. Other summits are Tolapella (7,720) and Kirrigalpota (7,810). The forms of the mountains of Ceylon are singularly varied. They most frequently occur connected in chains, and terminate in round or peaked summits. Their sides are always steep and occasionally precipitous and rocky. There is no proportional correspondence between the heights of the mountains and the depths of the adjoining valleys, and often the valleys are extremely narrow. The deepest are in the heart of the mountains. Some are between 3,000 and 4,000 feet deep, and not over half a mile wide.

Rivers and Lakes.-The rivers of Ceylon, though numerous, especially on the southern and southwestern sides, are small, being merely mountain streams, navigable only by canoes, and that but for a short distance from their mouths. The Mahaveli-ganga, which rises near Adam's Peak, and falls into the sea by a number of branches near Trincomalee, is by far the most important. It has a course of 134 miles, and drains upward of 4,000 square miles. Timber grows on its banks in great abundance, consisting of halmalille, ebony, satin-wood, etc., which is floated down to the harbor during the freshets. Of the remaining rivers the Kalaniganga, the Kala-ganga, and the Maha Oya reach the sea on the western coast; and the Gintota-ganga at Galle. All the rivers are liable to be surcharged with rain during the monsoon, and to inundate the level country, while the heat of the sun on drying the country produces malaria. There are numerous extensive lagoons or back-waters round the coasts, but no lakes in the island worth noticing, the largest being only four miles broad. There are rills and streamlets rushing along in every direction among the mountains,

so overhung with superabundant vegetation as to be frequently invisible.

Geology and Mineralogy.- Ceylon is mostly formed of ancient stratified rocks, but owing to the obliteration of fossil remains it is doubtful whether they have been deposited on the beds of seas or lakes. The mountains are composed of Primary and metamorphic rocks, the prevailing rock on the island being gneiss, though laterite (or "cabook") and a sort of dolomite also occur in considerable quantity. In the NuwaraEliya district and elsewhere there are large alluvial tracts. Basalt is found near Galle and Trincomalee, and at Pettigallakanda an ancient lava occurs. The soil is mostly formed from the disintegration of gneiss. The western coast of the island is believed to be rising.. Plumbago is found in sufficient quantities to make it of commercial importance, anthracite is obtained, and among the metals occurring in the island are iron in fair quantity, manganese, gold, platinum, molybdenum, nickel, cobalt, copper, and tin. No coal has been found, but nitre and salt occur (the latter is also a somewhat important article of manufacture). Gems of many kinds are abundant, particularly near Ratnapura. They are found either embedded in the rock or washed down in the alluvium of river-beds, and include zircons, amethysts, cat's-eyes, topazes, moonstones, garnets, spinel, sapphires, rubies, cinnamon stones, etc. There are hot springs at Bintenna, Trincomalee, and Puttalam.

Roads and Transportation.- Ceylon is now well provided with roads. A highway has been made from Colombo to Nuwara-Eliya, 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. A continuous line, 769 miles in length, makes the entire circuit of the coast, and every town of importance is connected by roads with the two chief cities. The roads in general are good, many of them being macadamized, and in the neighborhood of the chief towns are adapted for carriages. During the monsoons, however, the roads in many parts are impassable from inundations. The building and maintenance of roads, bridges, streets, and canals forms one of the chief items of expenditure of the government. Railroad extension is also a government affair, and there are now about 300 miles in all, the main line being that between Colombo and Kandy (75 miles). In the early part of the 19th century there was not a single road in the country, merely a few pathways, the greater part of the island being then covered with impenetrable forests.

Climate. Where the jungle has been cleared away and the land drained and cultivated, the country is perfectly healthy; where low wooded tracts, and flat marshy lands abound, covered with a rank, luxuriant vegetation, the climate is eminently insalubrious, showing, what is now pretty well understood, that mere heat has little to do with the unhealthiness of tropical climates. The heat is not so great as on the neighboring coast of India, the sea-breezes moderating the temperature. At Colombo, on the western side of the island, near the seventh parallel of north latitude, the mean daily variation of the temperature does not exceed 3°, and the annual range is from 76° to 86° 30' F. At Nuwara-Eliya (6,000 feet high) the annual range is from 32° to 80°. The eastern part of the island, being exposed to the northeastern monsoon, has a hot and dry climate, resembling that of the coast of Coromandel; while the

western division, being open to the southwestern monsoon, has a temperature and humid climate like that of the Malabar coast. The quantity of rain that falls annually in Ceylon is estimated at three times the quantity that falls in England, the rains being less frequent, but much heavier. The interruption which the course of the monsoons meet with from the mountain ranges of the island causes deluges of rain to fall on one side, while the other is parched with drought. At Kandy, in the interior, the average annual fall of rain is 85.3 inches; at Co- . lombo, on the seacoast, 75 to 80 inches. The prevalent diseases are those of the liver and intestines, often accompanied by fever. Elephantiasis and other cutaneous complaints are common. The very fatal disease called beriberi (Hydrops asthmaticus) occasionally occurs, being almost peculiar to the island. Animals-Most of the animals found on the opposite continent are native to this island, excepting the royal tiger, which does not exist here. Elephants are numerous, especially in the northern and eastern provinces, where they sometimes do great injury to the growing crops. The elephants of Ceylon are esteemed for their superior strength and docility. The eagerness with which they are hunted has greatly diminished their numbers. Since 1869 licenses for the capture and exportation of elephants must be obtained from the government. Bears, buffaloes, leopards, jackals, monkeys, and wild hogs, are numerous. There are several species of deer, of which the elk and fallow deer (properly the great red Sambar and spotted axis) are most abundant. Porcupines, bandicoots, squirrels (flying and other), bats, mungooses, are to be found, as are also the pangolin or scaly anteater, and the loris or Ceylon sloth. Flyingfoxes and rats are numerous. Pheasants, snipes, partridges, pigeons, peacocks, and a great variety of birds, of splendid plumage, are plentiful. Crocodiles, serpents, and reptiles of all sorts abound. Of the snake tribe, consisting of about 26 different species, six only are venomous. Among the insects are the leaf and stick insects, the ant-lion, the white ant, etc.

Vegetable Products. In the luxuriance of its vegetable productions, Ceylon rivals the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and in some respects bears a strong resemblance to them; its most valuable products are tea, rice, coffee, cinnamon, and the cocoanut. Coffee used to be the chief cultivated crop, but disease has within recent years much reduced the product. Cinnamon grows in the southwest, to which it is almost exclusively confined, requiring a sandy soil with a moist atmosphere. The trade in this spice was reserved as a government monoply by the Dutch when they had possession of the island; all that was collected beyond the quantity which it was thought could be sold at a monopoly price being burned. This absurd system was followed by the English for some years after their conquest of Ceylon, but was abandoned in October 1832, when the trade in cinnamon was declared free, subject to a duty on exportation. The cocoanut-trees grow along the entire western and southern coasts in countless numbers, each tree producing from 50 to 100 nuts in the year. Every part of this invaluable tree is capable of being turned to profitable account. The Palmyra palm, which grows principally in the northern part of the island, is of