anchester lies on the east bank of the Irwell, which divides it from Salford. The two places may be regarded to-day as making a single town, though they are governed by independent corporations. The origin of Manchester can be traced back to Roman times, but there is still doubt as to the name with which it began. Mancunium is the usually accepted Latin name, but throughout the Middle Ages the place was invariably known as Mamecestre, which cannot be derived from Mancunium. It is not unlikely that the Latin was really Mamucium, which occurs in the Itinerary of Antonine; and it has been suggested that the earliest form was Mammium, which could have been altered into either disputed form.

Despite its early beginnings, it was not until modern times that Manchester achieved distinction, but it is now one of the cities of the world, both because of the part played by it in the initiation of the present economic epoch, and because it presents unique features. It was in and around Manchester that the industrial revolution made its first noticeable marks and proceeded with greatest rapidity. Consequently problems connected with the industrial revolution were peculiarly associated with this great Lancashire town. The attitude to these of the new men naturally came to be desig. nated as that of the Manchester School, in view of the fact that Manchester dominated the area of greatest disturbance, and that many of the new men who voiced the new ideas were connected with Manchester. The prominence in and about the town of the Radical movement of the first quarter of the 19th century is signified historically by the 'Peterloo Massacre,' which took place where a building now stands to commemorate the part played by Manchester men in another social movement, also connected with the industrial revolution, which followed some years later. The building is

the Free Trade Hall, and the movement was that initiated and engineered by the Anti-Corn Law League (led by Richard Cobden), the seat of which, naturally enough, was Manchester. From the point of view of social history, therefore, Manchester is of peculiar interest; and, as will be explained later, to the historic interest there has been added another, connected with the present relation of the town to the business activities of Lancashire.

It must not be supposed, however, that Manchester first came into business notice when the industrial face of the country was being transformed a hundred years ago. Mention of it as a town of economic importance will constantly be met with in works of standing in the 16th and particularly in the 17th century. Some connection with textiles no doubt dates back to the 13th century, but it was not until later that Manchester began to assume an outstanding position. Camden, who visited it in the reign of Elizabeth, describes it as 'surpassing neighbouring towns in elegance.'

Here,' he says, 'is a woollen manufacture, church, market, and college. In the last age it was more famous for the manufacture of stuffs called Manchester cottons and the privilege of sanctuary, which the parliament under Henry VIII. removed to Chester. In 1641 Lewes Roberts, in his Treasure of Traffic, writes, with reference to the cotton and linen manufactures, that the people of Manchester should be 'remembered, and worthily, and for their industry commended.' Again, in 1724, Stukeley describes it as 'the largest, most rich, populous, and busy village in England. Here,' he adds, are about 2400 families, and their trade, which is incredibly large, consists of fustians, tickings, girthwebbs, and tapes, which are dispensed all over the kingdom and to foreign parts... On the same river for the space of three miles are sixty water. mills.' It was the coming of the cotton industry which gave Manchester rank among the chief towns of England. As Daniel Defoe observed in the course of his tour in 1727, 'the grand manu

facture which has so much raised this town is that of cotton in all its varieties.' By 'cotton' he meant cotton proper, and not the coarse woollens which under the name of cottons had won for themselves a reputation generations before. For some years in and about Manchester the cotton and woollen industries flourished side by side; but the former, introduced probably in the second half of the 16th century, eventually pushed the latter over the Pennine Range, and in the period 1770-88, according to Radcliffe, the author of The Origin of the New System of Manufacturing, cotton was become the almost universal material for employment.' At the end of the 18th century Manchester was a pre-eminent manufacturing town, but its form then was very different from what it is to day. In those times, where there are now streets of vast warehouses and offices, buildings stood, part residences and part business premises, in which Manchester merchants lived and stored their goods, and from which they put out their work to the numerous hand-loom weavers and small manufacturers in the vicinity. A faithful and picturesque account of Manchester life in these pre-factory days, and of the general features of the town, will be found in Mrs Linnaeus Banks's The Manchester Man. Around these merchants' premises factories soon sprang up, and Manchester became a mixed textile manufacturing (including spinning) and commercial centre, with numerous subsidiary industries such as machine-making.

The next epoch in the history of Manchester is signalised by its development as a marketing. centre. It is this characteristic, namely, that of serving as the trading nucleus of an extensive industrial district, which in the main renders Manchester a striking type of town organisation at the present day. Spinning and manufacturing, and even machine-making, were continuously pushed in bulk south and north and west, but they were not completely dissevered from Manchester. The necessary trading functions connected with the cotton industry were conducted on the Manchester Exchange, which has more than once been housed in a larger building. A large extension of the present building has been made. The Exchange, it may be incidentally remarked, is maintained out of the subscriptions of members, and is managed by a board of directors. When spinning separated to a large extent from weaving, the exercise of the marketing functions uniting them became of paramount importance, for the spinner and weaver had to keep in constant touch with one another for the purposes of sale and purchase of the material for cotton cloth; and a marketing-centre was also needed for the disposal of the cotton cloth. With regard to the cotton-wool, however, for the feeding of spindles, the market for this concentrated at Liverpool, its natural home, after the opening of railway communication between the two towns. Previously spinners bought, as a rule, from Manchester cotton-dealers, and up to 1789 the leading cotton mart had not been Liverpool but London. It is to be noted that a portion of the raw cotton market, but only a fraction, has been recovered for Manchester since its transformation into a port by the opening of the Manchester Ship-canal. It is the proximity of the manufacturing places in Lancashire to a marketing-centre with which they are united by a dense network of railways, offering frequent services, which accounts for the highly differentiated form of the Lancashire cotton industry when compared with the same industry on the Continent and in America, where the same crowding of the industrial centres around commercial centres is not to be found.

Manchester serves as a market not only for the home tradę, but also for the foreign trade; and it

is from the foreign trade, which has assumed prodigious dimensions, that Manchester has received its cosmopolitan character. At first the foreign trade was carried on by travellers abroad representing Manchester firms, just as the home trade between merchants and retailers used to be conducted through the medium of riders out' with samples. But the method of using the English traveller to get in touch with foreign demand was soon found to be unsatisfactory. The travellers knew little of foreign conditions, and, however long their acquaintance with another country, they seldom learned to read its needs as a business man of the country could. Consequently the tendency soon appeared for the foreign houses to send their representatives to Manchester and establish offices there instead of awaiting the travellers from Manchester firms. In a sense the foreign business of every important country has permanently affixed one of its tentacles to Manchester, with the result that the latest demands of other countries can now be learned from visits to offices in Manchester streets instead of being gleaned piecemeal, imperfectly and slowly, from the correspondence of travelling representatives. The extent to which this transference of commercial points from abroad to the metropolis of the cotton industry has proceeded may be gathered from a walk through Manchester streets when attention is given to the names on the doorplates of the various offices. At first the invasion of the foreign business man excited not a little distrust, but to-day it is realised that through this invasion foreign trade has been assisted in attaining its present dimensions. With this remodelling of Manchester into an outstanding commercial centre there has been associated the development of credit facilities, since finance plays so large a part in modern commerce, and, indeed, in modern industry also. The leading banks of the country have important branches in the metropolis of the cotton industry, which do duty as centres for smaller branches in various cottontowns; and there have appeared in addition (as should perhaps have been mentioned first) powerful local banks with their head-offices in Manchester, just as there has arisen for the same reason a local railway system, namely, the Lancashire and Yorkshire, which is managed from Manchester. Thus Manchester is to-day a metropolis somewhat in the same sense that London is a metropolis. London is the financial and business centre of the whole country. Similarly Manchester is the financial and business centre of the cotton industry and trade and all that is subsidiary to it. But the Lancashire district is not, therefore, self-contained and unlinked from the national metropolis, for the credit system of the country is substantially one, and it must be largely through the national metropolis that Lancashire business interests are brought into relation with those of other parts of the country. The development of the twin city of Manchester and Salford is to be read to some extent from the population figures below:

according to the census of 1921. Next to it stood Birmingham with 919,444, Liverpool with 802,940, and Sheffield with 490,639.

Facilities for transportation more than anything else govern the economic development of districts. Manchester has been fortunate in its proximity to a port, and it has been peculiarly fortunate also in having taken early steps to meet the needs of its trade by improving means of communication. In 1720 an act was obtained to make the Irwell navigable. In 1759-61 the Bridgewater Canal was constructed (by Brindley on the undertaking of the Duke of Bridgewater), which put Manchester in touch with the coalfields of Lancashire and, later, with the salt-mines of Cheshire, and made an outlet to the sea. Other canals which followed were the Ashton and Oldham, the Manchester, Bolton, and Bury, and the Rochdale. 1830 Manchester had the first perfect railway in full operation between it and Liverpool, and at the present time no town in England is better served with railways. Moreover, in order to avoid transhipment of goods and to render Manchester an inland port, the gigantic work of making a ship. canal was carried out in 1887-94 at a cost of about £14,000,000, including the purchase of land and the Bridgewater Canal. The total amount charged to capital now stands at nearly £18,000,000. Through this canal Manchester has been made a port of no mean size in respect of tonnage cleared.

In

Though the name of Manchester calls up first in the mind the conception of a vast business system, it is not for its business alone that Manchester is of interest. It is of interest also on its administrative side, again on account of its past and of its present activities. Manchester received a charter from the last of the Grelleys in 1301, seventy years after the chartering of Salford by Randle de Blundeville. Prior to 1301, however, Manchester (or Mamecestre, to give it the name by which it was then known) had certain borough characteristics. Burgage tenements, a borough court, a weekly market, and a three days' fair (granted by Henry III. in 1227) were all in existence. The last was held until early in the 19th century on the spot now known as St Ann's Square. It was then twice removed, and finally abolished in 1876. Despite the charter of 1301, it was formally decided in 1359 that Manchester was no borough, but a market town, the reason being, no doubt, that a distinction was drawn between royal charters and those reeeived from lords of the manor. Why Manchester was omitted, therefore, from the list of 246 corporations 'possessing and exercising municipal functions,' drawn up in 1833 by the Municipal Corporation Commissioners, is comprehensible. In 1791, however, some of the benefits of incorporation had been anticipated by the transference of the government of the town to police commissioners. Incorporation came in 1838. In connection with the agitation for it, Richard Cobden's pamphlet, Incorporate Your Borough, is worthy of note. In 1839 the first commission of the peace was created; in 1847 a bishopric followed; in 1853 the title of City was conferred, and in 1893 its chief officer received the title of Lord Mayor. In 1888 it became a county borough under the Act of that year. The Reform Bill of 1832 gave Manchester two members of parliament and Salford one. The Act of 1867 gave them three and two members respectively; and from 1885 Manchester had six, until they were increased to ten (1918), and Salford three members. Of late years the corporation of Manchester has gone a long way in assuming control of its public services. Gas, water, electricity, and the tramway system have all been municipalised. To improve the water-supply, obtained in the main from Longdendale valley, reservoirs having been constructed

3

in 1848 and extended in 1884, connection was established with Thirlmere in 1894, the year in which the Manchester Ship-canal was completed after the final stages had been rendered possible by a loan to the directors from the corporation. On the educational side also a progressive policy has been pursued. The schools of the city under public control are numerous and attain a high standard of efficiency, and in addition a municipal college of technology has been established on a palatial scale. Such of the work in this college as is of university character is now organised as the Faculty of Technology of the University of Manchester.

Among the features of Manchester, apart from business, the university is one of the chief. It began as the Owens College on the basis of an endowment left by John Owens in 1851. In 1870 it acquired new buildings, and ten years later it received a royal charter as the Victoria University, with which the college of Liverpool and eventually that of Leeds were associated. In 1904, in consequence of the development of university teaching in the north, the federal university split into three, and the Victoria University became the independent Victoria University of Manchester. At this time among the changes made was the institution of a Faculty of Commerce. Shortly after its foundation the Owens College took a high rank, notably in science, and particularly, perhaps, in chemistry, and for many years now it has been admirably equipped all round, in the arts and other faculties as well as in science. In addition to the university there are also in Manchester a famous Grammar School and a well-known High School for Girls. The Grammar School dates back to 1515, in which year it was founded by Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter. It has produced many eminent men, and at the present time is one of the largest public day--schools in the country. Almost as old as the Grammar School is the Blue Coat School, founded, together with a library, by Humphrey Chetham in 1653. In addition to the Chetham Library, containing some rare books and manuscripts, and the Free Reference Library, maintained by the corporation together with numerous branch libraries, there are two other libraries of note in Manchester, namely, the Christie Library and the John Rylands Library, which, in respect of the value of its possessions, is of world-wide repute. The John Rylands Library possesses the famous Althorp collection of books, and was presented to the town in 1892 in commemoration of John Rylands, a Manchester warehouseman and manufacturer, by his widow. On the cultural side Manchester has for long been to the fore among English cities, in this respect almost rivalling Edinburgh. Of the existing daily papers, the Manchester Guardian, founded early in the century, ranks with the best in the country. The Literary and Philosophical Society, which contains on its roll of members the distinguished names of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas de Quincey, John Dalton, Sir William Fairbairn, James Nasmyth, and Dr Joule, dates back to 1789. The Statistical Society was instituted in 1833, a year before the London one.

Manchester has in addition several first-class theatres, and maintains among its concerts the famous Halle Concerts. There are also several museums and art galleries. The chief museum is maintained by the university, but it receives a grant from the corporation, which also shares in its management. The chief art gallery is located at present in somewhat cramped premises in Mosley Street. The parks are also worthy of mention. Of public buildings the most striking are the Town Hall, which contains some remarkable paintings

on its walls by Ford Madox Brown, the Law-courts, and the University (all designed by Waterhouse), and the Cathedral. The Cathedral, formerly known as the College Church, was built in 1422, but between 1845 and 1868 it underwent complete restoration. See Whittaker's History of Manchester (1771); Reilly's History of Manchester (1861); Baine's History of Lancashire (1870); Proctor's Memorials of Manchester (1880); Axon's Annals of Manchester (1886); Saintsbury's Manchester (1887); Tait's Medieval Manchester and Beginning of Lancashire (1904); Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry (1904); Bamford's Early Days (1848) and Passages in the Life of a Radical (somewhat earlier), both republished in 1893; Victoria County History (volumes on Lancashire); Prentice's Historical Sketches and Personal Recollections of Manchester (1850).

Manchester, the largest city of New Hampshire, stands mostly on the east bank of the Merri mac River, 16 miles S. of Concord, 59 miles NNW. of Boston by rail. Its principal streets are wide and shaded with elms, and it has several public parks. The river here falls 54 feet, and affords water-power to numerous factories. The great industry of the place is its manufacture of cottons and woollens; but locomotives, fire-engines, sewingmachines, wagons, edged tools, boots and shoes, paper, &c. are also manufactured. Manchester is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has a Catholic orphanage and a convent, besides a state reform-school. Pop. (1870) 23,536; (1920) 78,384. Manchester, EDWARD MONTAGU, second EARL OF, English general and statesman, was the son of the first earl, and was born in 1602. After leaving Cambridge-his college was Sidney Sussex-he accompanied Prince Charles to Spain, and afterwards was created Baron Montagu of Kimbolton. But siding with the popular party, and being an acknowledged leader of the Puritans in the Upper House, he was charged by the king (3d January 1642) with entertaining traitorous designs, along with the five independent members of the House of Commons. He succeeded his father as earl in the same year. On the outbreak of hos

tilities he of course fought for the parliament. He served under Essex at Edgehill, then held the associated (eastern) counties against Newcastle, took Lincoln (1644), and routed Prince Rupert at Marston Moor-that is to say, he nominally commanded; the real fighting was done by Cromwell and his Ironsides. He then marched to oppose the royalists in the south-west, and defeated them at Newbury (the second battle). But after this battle he again showed slackness in following up the victory, the same fault that had been noticed after Marston

Moor. In consequence Cromwell accused him of military incompetency in the House of Commons, and the two had a downright quarrel. The Selfdenying Ordinance deprived Manchester of his command, and this did not allay his bitterness against Cromwell. He opposed the trial of the king, and protested against the Commonwealth. Afterwards, having been active in promoting the Restoration, he was made Lord Chamberlain, a step designed to conciliate the Presbyterians. He died 5th May 1671.

His grandson, CHARLES MONTAGU, fourth EARL, supported William of Orange in Ireland, was sent as ambassador extraordinary to Venice (1696), Paris (1699), and Vienna (1707), and was made Duke of Manchester in 1719 for having favoured the Hanoverian succession. He died 20th January 1722.

Manchineel (Hippomane Mancinella), a tropical American tree of the natural order Euphorbiaceæ, celebrated for the poisonous properties of its acrid milky juice. A drop of this burns like fire if it falls upon the skin, and the sore which it produces is very difficult to heal. The Indians use it for poisoning their arrows. The fruit is

MANCHURIA

not unlike a small apple; dried and pulverised it is diuretic; and still more so its seeds. The wood is well suited for cabinet-making.

The

Manchuria, the north-easternmost portion of the Chinese dominions, lies between the Yellow Sea and the Amur, and borders on Korea and Siberia. The area of Manchuria is said to be 360,000 sq. m.; total pop. 21,000,000. There are three provinces-Kirin in the centre, Feng-tien or Liao-tung in the south, and Hei-lung-chiang in the north. The eastern and most of the central parts are covered with the irregularly grouped ranges of the Long White Mountains, which in the White Mountain itself reach 8000 feet, whilst the northern province is crossed by the Chingan Mountains. The central parts of the country are watered by the Sungari, which rises in the craterlake of the Long White Mountains, and after a course of 850 miles joins the Amur on the north predominating; in minerals, chiefly gold, silver, border. The hills are rich in timber, pines coal, and iron, little worked till lately; and in fur-bearing and other animals, as the sable, foxes, lynx, squirrel, tiger, bear, wolf, deer, &c. Manchurian lark, a clever mimic, is exported in great numbers to China. The rivers swarm with salmon, and trout are plentiful. The climate is temperate in summer, especially whilst the rains last (May to September), but very severe in winter, the season of traffic, when the streams and extensive marshy tracts are frost-bound; the thermometer frequently falls as low as -25° F. in the northern province in the depth of winter. The soil millet (with vegetables the chief food of the is extremely fertile, and produces in abundance and ginseng. Cultivation of the soy (or soya) bean people), beans, wheat, rice, maize, hemp, vegetables, Manufactures for the most part are primitive, but has developed prodigiously. Wild silk is produced. there has been a very vigorous growth of factory enterprise under Russian, Japanese, and Chinese management. A large amount of trade is carried on at the towns in the interior, and especially at the treaty-port of New-chwang (q.v.). Beans, bean cakes and oil, silk, ginseng, skins and furs, &c., are exported, and cottons, woollens, metals, sugar, silk, paper, medicines, &c., imported. There is a railway, connecting with those of Chih-li, Dairen, and and Kharbin, where it joins the Russian direct Korea, through southern Manchuria to Mukden line (Chinese Eastern') to Vladivostok, which

crosses Manchuria from north-west to south-east. Floods have often caused severe famines.

The

population includes but few Manchus, and most of these dress and speak like Chinese. Yet they are the aristocracy of the country, furnishing its magistrates and soldiers, its police, and its hunters, though many cultivate their own land. From the time when the Manchus conquered China (1644) and founded the late imperial dynasty Manchuria was the favourite recruiting-ground for the Chinese army. The rest of the population consists almost dustrious, and prosperous, and still pouring in. entirely of Chinese immigrants, enterprising, inThe principal towns are Mukden (q.v.), the capital; Kharbin (q.v.); Kirin (q.v.); Kwangcheng-tzu; New-chwang, the chief port; Antung, also a great Liao-yang; Tsitsihar; Ying-tzu, commonly called port. All Manchurian towns are indescribably filthy, worse than English towns in the 15th century, and most of them are walled. The religions current are those found in China (q.v.), though the original creed of the Manchus was Shamanism. Early in the 11th century B.C. there existed a native kingdom in the southern of the three provinces, and this was succeeded by other states, until in the beginning of the 17th century Nurhachu, a Manchu chief, founded a powerful

MANCINI

sovereignty; in 1644 his grandson ascended the throne of China, and thus founded the dynasty that reigned till 1911. The conquerors imposed upon the conquered the custom of wearing the pigtail. The first step in the Russian occupation was the concession by China allowing the deviation of the - Siberian railway through Manchuria; then the events connected with the russification of Port Arthur (q.v.) and Ta-lien-wan. Finally it was arranged that the Siberian railway should be connected with Kirin and Mukden, with Peking on the one hand and Port Arthur on the other. Since the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 (see JAPAN) Japan holds a lease of the Liao-tung peninsula, and has railway and other trade privileges in southern Manchuria (the principal theatre of war). The Russians and the Japanese control the railways. In the Chinese civil wars General Chang- | tso-lin, governor of Manchuria, played a leading part as the rival of General Wu-pei-fu. The Manchu language is of the Ural-Altaic family. The Manchu alphabet is of Syriac descent. See ALPHABET. French Catholics (since 1838) and Presbyterians (since 1861) have missions. See books by Hosie (1901), Whigham (1904), Weale (1904), Kemp (1912), Christie (1914), Sowerby (1923).

Mancini. See MAZARIN.

Manco Capac, mythical ancestor of the Incas. Mancunium. See MANCHESTER. Mandæans, a small sect found in South Babylonia and Khuzistân. The members are a fine race, chiefly gold and silver smiths and boatbuilders; and their sacred books are written in a very archaic Aramaic dialect and script which date back before the 7th-8th centuries A.D. The religious beliefs, which are of remarkably diverse origin, are opposed to Judaism, Christianity, and the dualism of Manichæism (see MANICHEUS), and have much in common with Gnosticism (q.v.). From ancient Babylonia are derived the names of certain deities, astral elements, the fight with darkness, Hibil's descent into the underworld, the sanctity of water, and the elaborate water-ritual. The Great Fruit (Pira) and the Great Vessel (Mânâ Rabba) stand at the head of the religious system. Then comes the First or Great Life, the King of Life, the source of all development and of the Great Jordan which encircles the celestial realm. Next follow the Second Life and the Manda d Hayye (Knowledge of Life, i.e. salvation), from whom the sect derives its name. He is source of life, mediator, and saviour. His three sons, messengers of the true religion, are Hibil (Abel), Sithil (Seth), and Enoch (Gen. iv. 26, fused with the Son of Man in Dan. vii. 13, and, like the latter, dwelling in a cloud). The Third Life is father of the 'Uthrê ('riches,' Mammons?), and his son Ptahil created the bodies of men, although the spirit comes from Mâna Rabba. In another version this demiurge is Gabriel. The Ruha ('spirit') with her son 'Ur ('light')-both derived from Gen. i. 2 seq.-produced the planets, signs of the zodiac, &c., including Ishtar (Venus, or the Holy Spirit), Bel (Jupiter), Nebo (Mercury), Adonay (the founder of Judaism), and other sources of false religion and evil. The false prophets extend from Abraham to Mohammed. The true prophet was John the Baptist, Jesus being a false prophet (also identified with Mercury) whom Enosh exposed. The Mandæan reverence for John and the prominence of rites of baptism (maşbutha)-Christian baptism being condemned-account for the misleading name of St John's Christians given to the sect (17th century onwards), and for the older title of Sabians (in the Koran), whence the modern name of Subbis. The native title, Nasoreans, suggests the old Jewish-Christian Nazoræans; but

although there are resemblances to Ophites and other old sects, the name probably means "observers,' i.e. men distinguished for their knowledge. Prayers are recited thrice during the day and twice at night. Emphasis is laid upon ritual rectitude and truth, and ritual purity; and there are some special foodlaws. In course of time Christian, Jewish, Persian, and other influences continued to modify the religion (e.g. observance of the Sabbath, resurrection), even as they explain the heterogeneous elements already present in the sacred books. The light thrown by the Mandæan writings upon early beliefs in Babylonia prior to the age of Islam is of great value; but the analysis of the different elements, as will be seen from the above, is a very difficult task, upon which the chief work has been done by Brandt (see Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics) and Lidzbarski (edition of texts); on the book of John see Mead, The Quest, vol. xv.

Mandalay, the chief town of Upper Burma, stands 2 miles from the left bank of the Irawadi, a little N. of Amarapura (q.v.), the former capital, and 410 miles by rail (1888) N. of Rangoon. Founded in 1860, it was the capital of independent Burma until its capture by the British in the end of 1885, and after the treaty (1886) by which the king lost his throne it became the capital of Upper Burma. The city forms a square, each side a mile long, and is surrounded by a wide moat, a crenelated brick wall 26 feet high, and an inner earthen parapet. In the centre of the city stand the royal palaces, constructed principally of teak-wood, and enclosed by three stone walls and a teak-wood stockade. There is little of real interest or beauty in them beyond some rich wood-carving. The most famous building in Mandalay is, however, the Arakan Pagoda; it contains a brazen image of the Buddha, 12 feet high, an object of veneration to thousands of pilgrims. Outside these enclosures was, until the British conquest, a crowded, dirty native town, now cleared away to make room for a Britishi cantonment. The present native quarters lie outside the fortified city. Beyond them, again, on the slopes of the hills that border the valley of the Irawadi, are numerous fine monasteries. (1921) 148,917. Silk-weaving is the most important of the industries; the others are gold and silver work, ivory and wood carving, bell and gong casting, and knife and sword making. A disastrous fire in 1892 destroyed most of the town and facilitated the great improvements made since the British occupation. It has now fine well-lighted streets.

Pop.

Mandamus is a writ, not of right but of prerogative, which issues from the Court of King's Bench, commanding some public body, or inferior court, or justices of the peace, to do something which it is their legal duty to do. In the United States the power to issue writs of mandamus is vested in the Supreme Court, and is also allowed to the circuit courts, subject to considerable restrictions.

Mandarin, a general term applied to Chinese officers of every grade by foreigners, derived from the Portuguese mandar, to command.' For the Chinese governmental authorities, their rank and distinctive buttons, see CHINA.

Mandeville, BERNARD, an English satirical writer, though born of Dutch parents at Dordrecht in Holland in 1670. He graduated in medicine at Leyden, after six years of study, in 1691, and immediately afterwards settled in London to practise his profession; he died in that city in 1733. He is known as the author of a short work in doggerel verse entitled The Fable of the Bees, which, as finally published in 1723, included the fable itself, called The Grumbling Hive, first printed in 1705, Remarks on the Fable, and Inquiry into the Origir of Moral Virtue, both added to the 1714 edition,