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MANUSCRIPTS

the destructive distillation of coal and shale (see GAS and PARAFFIN). Its value depends upon the percentage of ammonia which it contains. The normal commercial product, 95 per cent. pure, contains 20 per cent. of nitrogen, equivalent to 24 per cent. ammonia.

Nitrate of Soda or Chile Saltpetre is very extensively imported, and is sold on a basis of 95 per cent. nitrate, or '5 per cent. refraction '-i.e. not more than 5 per cent. of impurities-equivalent to 15 per cent. nitrogen. It is found native in several districts of South America in an impure state, and is rendered marketable by a process of solution and re-crystallising. See NITRE.

Nitrate of Lime and Calcium Cyanamide are made by different processes, in both of which atmospheric nitrogen is fixed and rendered available as manure. Both are valuable manures, but the cyanamide is not suitable for application to cold, wet soils. Commercial nitrate of lime is about 75 per cent. pure, equivalent to 13 per cent. nitrogen. Commercial cyanamide contains 18 per cent. nitrogen. Potash Salts are of the utmost service to plants. Carse or clay lands generally contain a sufficiency of potash, while medium and light soils require it to be added. Nitrate, sulphate, and muriate are all more or less employed in compounding potash manures (i.e. manures containing potash as one of their constituents), but kainit-an impure potash salt largely imported from Germany-is perhaps the most generally used when a dressing of potash only is desired.

Liquid Manure may be classed with farmyard manure, as it is now very commonly absorbed in the courts' by the straw, &c. Occasionally it is used in the liquid form on grass or stubble land.

Lime is not a manure in the strict sense, in that it is never applied with the object of supplying the particular element, calcium, which it contains. Its great value is in supplying a base. In its absence soils become acid, and the normal bacteriological processes of nitrification cease. Lime may be applied as carbonate-e.g. ground limestone or chalk -as oxide (quicklime), or as hydrate (slaked lime). See AGRICULTURE, BONE MANURES, COMPOSTS, ROTATION, SEWAGE, SLAG.

Manuscripts. See PALEOGRAPHY, CODEX, PAPYRUS, ILLUMINATION, WRITING.

Manutius, Manuzio. See ALDINE EDITIONS. Manx. See MAN, ISLE OF. Manyplies. See DIGESTION. Manytch, a depression which in geologically recent times connected the Caspian with the Sea of Azov, and may still be regarded as the boundary between Europe and Asia. The river Many teh flows (when it is not a mere chain of salt lakes) WNW. to the Don. The eastern Manytch flows eastward from the watershed, until it is lost in the sands, or possibly sometimes reaches the Caspian through the Haiduk and the Kuma.

Manzanares, a town of the Spanish province of Ciudad Real, 100 miles S. of Madrid, in the La Maucha country, has an old citadel. The district produces saffron and wine. Pop. 16,000.

Manzanares. See MADRID.

Manzanillo, (1) a port of Mexico, on a fine bay opening to the Pacific, 41 miles WSW. of Colima, with which it is connected by rail. The country around is fertile. Pop. 4000.-(2) A port on the south coast of Cuba, with a good harbour, and export trade in valuable woods, sugar, &c.; pop. 60,000.

Manzanita, a name given to several Californian shrubs, species of Arctostaphylos (see BEARBERRY), which form dense thickets ('chaparral') on the mountain-sides. The berries are edible.

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Manzikert, MANAZGERT, or MELAZGERD, in Armenia, N. of Lake Van, scene of the victory of Alp-Arslan (q. v.) over Romanus Diogenes in 1071.

Manzoni, ALESSANDRO, a great Italian writer, was born at Milan, March 7, 1785, of noble parents, through his mother grandson of the celebrated Marquis Beccaria. He published his first poems in 1806, married happily in 1810, and spent the next few years in the composition of the Inni Sacri, sacred lyrics, and a treatise on the religious basis of morality, by way of reparation for the unbelief of early youth. In 1819 he published his first tragedy, Il Conte di Carmagnola, a trumpet-blast of romanticism; the second, Adelchi, followed in 1822. Manzoni's first tragedy had the honour to be defended by Goethe, 'one genius having divined the other.' But the work which gave Manzoni European fame is his historical novel, I Promessi Sposi, à Milanese story of the 17th century (3 vols. Milan, 1825-6-7). The tale abounds in interesting sketches of national and local Italian customs and modes of life, portrayed with unflagging spirit and humour, with force and grandeur of style, especially the while various grave historical events are narrated episode of the plague in Milan. Manzoni's noble of the great Napoleon. His last years were darkode, Il Cinque Maggio, was inspired by the death ened by the frequent shadow of death within his household.

1873, leaving to posterity the memory not alone of He himself died at Milan, 23d May a great writer, but of a singularly noble and sincere

man.

An edition of his works in 5 vols. was published in 1828-29, and his Letters were collected by Sforza (1875). The standard edition of the complete works (Hoepli, Milan) includes his Letters edited by Sforza aud Gallavresi (1913). See Bismara's Bibliografia Manzoniana (Turin, 1875); Lives (Italian) by Balbiani (1873), Bersezio (1873), Prina (1874), Pugni (1876), Gubernatis (1879), and Graf (1898); De Sanctis, Manzoni : Studi e Lezioni (1922).

Ma'oris, the native inhabitants of New Zealand (q.v.).

Maormor. See EARL.

Map (Lat. mappa, a towel'). A map is a delineation on a plane of the surface of the earth or of a portion thereof, exhibiting the lines of latitude and longitude, &c., and the forms and relative positions of the countries, mountain-ranges, rivers, towns, &c.; or it may be of the starry heavens, or of stars and constellations. As it is manifestly impossible correctly to represent a spherical upon a plane surface, geographers are consequently necessitated to resort to expedients in order to minimise or distribute the unavoidable distortion and dis

proportion. Hence the use of the various map projections or arrangements of the lines of latitude and longitude. The only true representation of terrestrial globe. This is inconvenient in form and the earth's surface, it is clear, is to be found on the necessarily too small in scale to serve the purposes effected by maps proper, which are usually produced on paper or other convenient plane surfaces, and a series of which, conjoined, form an atlas. A hydrographical map, specially representing oceans, seas, or navigable waters with their coasts, sandbanks, currents, lighthouses, depths, and other objects and information of importance to seamen, is usually constructed on Mercator's projection, and is represents the details minutely and on a consider. called a Chart (q.v.). A special topographical map able scale. The Ordnance Survey (q.v.) of Great Britain and Ireland is a good example of such, and is produced on various scales. An orographical map shows the relief of the land surface. For this purpose Contour Lines (q. v.) are much more satisfactory than the old-fashioned hachures; and layers' coloured in a scale ranging (say) from dark green

for land near sea-level, through light greens and browns to dark browns for the highest hill-tops, present the character and details of a country vividly to the eye. In like manner a bathygraphical map shows depth of water, commonly by deepening shades of blue. A bathyorographical map is a combination of the two last. Maps may be constructed for special purposes, and are distinguished as physical, geological, political, military, statistical, historical, &c. See GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, SURVEYING.

Officers of the Geological Survey (q.v.) insert in Ordnance Survey maps the boundaries of formations and other data of interest to geologists and miners. The geological maps thus made were long hand-coloured, but are now printed in colours. In like manner botanical maps have been constructed by ecologists, by indicating plant-formations upon an ordinary map.

Within the last century or so great improvement has been made in the art of map production or cartography, resulting in great clearness and the combination of a mass of information with artistic beauty. This is attained in some cases partly by the use of conventional signs or arrangements, such as the adoption of blue colour for coasts and watercourses, brown for mountain-ranges, and various tintings for the divisions, political or otherwise, and to distinguish the various natures of the surface, such as forest, arable, prairie, desert, differences of elevation, &c. The art of lithography has been an invaluable aid in all such cases. In Germany especially has this science-art been carried to the greatest perfection. Of late maps have been made by photographing the ground from aircraft, a method of use in difficult country.

The scale or definite relation of a map to the actual size of nature is indicated by a graduated line, showing by its divisions the number of kilometres, or miles, or yards corresponding to any space measured on the map. In comparing various maps by their scales, it is convenient to refer to the scale of nature, frequently indicated in proportional figures, thus-1: 3,700,000; 1: 500,000, &c.

The lines of projection on a map are essential for determining the positions of the parts, and indicate latitude, or distance north or south from the equator, and longitude, or distance east or west from any given line. These lines are called meridians, and are usually numbered from the meridian of Greenwich on English maps, and indeed on nearly all maps. Other first meridians in common use are those of Paris, Washington, and Ferro (see LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE). These distances are given in degrees, minutes, and seconds, as in other circle measurements. In choosing a projection, regard must be had to the purpose for which it is intended, and to the area to be represented. The errors inherent in a projection nearly imperceptible in a map of England might be fatal to its use in a map of Asia. In a map of the world equivalence of area is of less importance than freedom from distortion and correctness of relative position. There have been numerous forms of projection devised, including perspectives and approximative developments. Of these only the more familiar can be described here.

The plane on which the perspective map is drawn is supposed to pass through the centre of the earth, and, according to the distance of the eye, the projection is either of the first, second, or third of the following. (1) In the orthographic the eye is assumed to be at an infinite distance from the centre of the earth, so that all rays of light proceeding from every point in its surface are parallel and perpendicular. From the nature of this projection, it is evident that, while the central parts of the hemisphere are fairly accurately represented, the parts towards the

circumference are crowded together and diminished in size. On this account it is of little use for geographical purposes, but most suitable for maps of the moon. (2) In the stereographic the eye or point of projection is assumed to be placed on

Fig. 1.

Globular, or Equidistant Projection of a Hemisphere. the surface of the sphere opposite the one to be delineated. If the globe were transparent, the eye would then see the opposite concave surface. Contrary to the orthographic, this method contracts the centre of the map, and enlarges it towards the circumference. Owing to the unequal area of the divisions, and the difficulty of finding the true latitude and longitude of places, this projection is not much employed. (3) In order to rectify the opposite effects of the two preceding, the globular projection, a modification of the two, is generally adopted. If we suppose the eye to be removed from the surface to a distance equal to the sine of 45° of the circumscribing circle, the projection is called globular. In other words, if the diameter of the sphere be 200 parts, it must be produced 70 of these parts in order to give the point of projection. All meridians and parallels in this projection are in reality elliptical curves; but as they approach so nearly to circular arcs, they are very rarely shown otherwise.

The construction of the globular or equidistant projection is as follows (fig. 1): Describe a circle, NESW, to represent a meridian, and draw two diameters, NCS and WCE, perpendicular to each other, the one for a central meridian, the other for the equator. Then N and S will represent the north and south poles. Divide each of the quadrants into nine equal parts, and each of the radii, CN, CE, CS, and CW, also into nine equal parts. Produce NS both ways, and find on it the centres of circles which will pass through the three points 80 x 80, 70 y 70, &c., and these arcs described on both sides of the equator will be the parallels of latitude. In like manner, find on WE produced the centres of circles which must pass through a, b, &c., and the poles. Having selected the first meridian, number the others successively to the east and west of it. A map may in this way be constructed on the rational horizon of any place.

The impossibility of getting a satisfactory representation of special parts of the sphere by any of the previous methods leads to the desire for others less defective. Of all solid bodies whose surfaces can be accurately developed or rolled out upon a plane without alteration, the cone and cylinder approach nearest to the character of the sphere. A portion of the sphere between two parallels not far distant from each other corresponds very nearly to

MAP

a like conical zone; whence it is that conical developments make the best projections for limited portions of the earth's surface, and even with some modifications for more extensive portions.

A conical projection of Europe (fig. 2) is constructed thus: Draw a base-line, AB; bisect it in E, and at that point erect a perpendicular, ED, to form the central meridian of the map. Take a space for 5 of latitude, and, since Europe lies between the 35th and 75th parallels of latitude, mark off eight of these spaces along ED for the points through which the parallels must pass. The centre from which to describe the parallels will be the point in ED where the top of a cone, cutting the globe at the 45th and 65th parallels, would meet the axis of the sphere. This point will be found to be beyond the North Pole at C. On the parallels of 45° and 65°, where the cone cuts the sphere, mark off equivalents to 5° of longitude, in proportion to the degrees of latitude in those parallels, and if straight lines be drawn through these points from C they will represent the meridians for every 5°. A modification of the conic projection, suitable for more extensive portions of the sphere, such as Asia, is obtained by giving on each parallel of latitude the true meridional proportional distances, which results in a curving of the meridian lines outward from the centre of the map.

In all the projections hitherto described the direction either of the north and south, or of the east and west, is represented by a curved line, so

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30 35 40 45 B

Fig. 2.-Conical Projection of Europe. that on such a map the course of a vessel would almost always be laid down in a curve, which could only be described by continually laying off from the meridian a line at an angle equal to that made with the meridian by the point of the compass at which the ship was sailing. If the vessel were to steer in a direct north-east course by one of the previous projections, she would, if land did not intervene, describe a spiral. The mariner, how ever, requires a chart which will enable him to steer his course by compass in straight lines only. This valuable instrument is supplied by Mercator's chart, a cylindrical projection in which all the meridians are straight lines perpendicular to the equator, and all the parallels straight lines parallel to the equator. It is constructed thus (fig. 3): A line, AB, is drawn of the required length for the equator. This line is divided into 36, 24, or 18 equal parts, for meridians at 10°, 15°, or 20° apart, and the meridians are then drawn through these perpendicular to AB. From a table of meridional parts (a table of the number of times that the length of

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This projection, of course, does not give a natural representation of the earth, its effect being to exaggerate the polar regions immensely. The distortion in the form of countries and relative direction of places is rectified by the degrees of latitude being made to increase proportionably to those of longitude. There are other cylindrical projections of the sphere, but this is the most generally valuable and best known. It gives an unbroken view of the earth's surface with the exception of the poles, which are infinitely remote.

considered

Historical.-The ancient Greeks Anaximander (560 B.C.) as the inventor of cartography; but there is evidence that about 1000 years earlier some attempts in that direction had been made amongst the Egyptians. Necessarily these efforts were of the crudest, and were made upon the supposition that the earth was a plane. After Aristotle the spherical theory was adopted, and the application of astronomical observations to geography was first made by Pytheas of Massilia (326 B.C.), and the first attempts at projections by Dicæarchus of Messana (310 B.C.). Ptolemy's (150 A.D.) rational teaching had an ultimate valuable influence in the treatment of cartography, although the Romans made little progress in the art, which during the middle ages also showed almost no advance. In the 14th and 15th centuries a gratifying improvement is observable in Italian nautical charts. In the 15th century the revivals of Ptolemy's teaching produced a revolution in the construction of maps, and laid the foundation of modern cartography. There was great increase in the number and importance of maps. The first attempts to improve and increase the methods of projection known to the Greeks were made by Germans, viz. Johann Stöffler (1452-1536), and Peter Apianus (1495-1552), &c. In the same period that Mercator (Gerhard Kremer, 1512-1594) made his invaluable contributions, the Italians, Germans, and Dutch were active competitors in geographical work. Amongst the increasing host of names connected with the subject are found that of Sebastian Cabot (1544), who produced his map of the world; in Germany, of Johann Baptist Homann (1644-1724) and Tobias Mayer (1723-86); in France, Nicolas Sanson (1600-67), Guillaume de l'Isle (1675-1726), and Jean Baptiste Bougignon

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SURVEY, LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE, MERIDIAN, ORDNANCE SURVEY, SURVEYING.

Map (less correctly, MAPES), WALTER, a great 12th-century writer, was born on the Welsh marches, perhaps in Herefordshire, about 1137. He studied at the university of Paris, became an intimate friend of Becket, was a justice-in-eyre at Gloucester assize in 1173, attended the king the same year to Limoges, and for many years later, probably as chaplain, and was sent on missions to Paris and to Rome. He was parson of Westbury-on-Severn in Gloucestershire, where he had a long feud for his rights with the Cistercian monks of the neighbouring Flaxley Abbey, and became canon of St Paul's and precentor of Lincoln, but still continued his attendance on the king. In 1197, under Richard I., he became archdeacon of Oxford, and died before 1210. Map, who was perhaps Welsh, was a frank, open-hearted man, with a quick wit, bold humour, and an indignant contempt for hypocrisy. All these qualities are revealed in a number of Latin satirical poems long connected with his name. Criticism has assailed but not yet disproved the attribution. Of these the chief are the Golias series (Apocalypsis Golia, Predicatio, Confessio, &c.). In the last named occurs the famous 'Meum est propositum in taberna mori.' In Bishop Golias the writer has realised by creative imagination a type of the ribald priest, and upon his head he pours out the vials of his wrath and scorn, with humour rich, bold, sometimes coarse, but always honest. Map, if he was the author, seems to have kept the secret well, for even his friend Giraldus Cambrensis did not know their origin, as we find him, with the churchman's proverbial dislike to see the humorist point out the stains upon his cloth, denouncing Golias as a foul-mouthed scoffer.

In any case, however, Map was not the first Goliardic writer. See GOLIARDS.

Sir Galahad, the stainless knight, may have been Map's creation, and there is reason, with M. Paulin Paris, to count him the heart and soul of that contemporary work of Christian spiritualisation which systematised and gave a meaning to the detached Arthurian romances. He wrote most probably the original of Robert de Borron's introductory romance of the Saint Graal, and of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven's Lanzelet. Manuscripts persistently attribute to him the great French prose Lancelot, including the Lancelot proper, the Quest of the Saint Graal, and the Mort Artus.

Undoubtedly Map's is a work of another kind, the De Nugis Curialium, a vivacious and entertaining miscellany or note-book of the court-gossip and events of the day, interspersed with theological polemics, anecdotes, and accounts of miracles, fairy legends, or apparitiones fantasticæ.

Thomas Wright edited for the Camden Society the Latin Poems (1841) and the De Nugis Curialium (1850). The latter has been edited by Dr M. R. James (1914), and translated by Tupper and Ogle (1924). See the Cambridge History of English Literature (vol. i. 1908), and James Hinton's study of the De Nugibus (1917).

Maple (Acer), the typical and the principal genus of the natural order Aceraceæ. The species are numerous, all are deciduous trees, and natives of the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, and particularly numerous in North America and the north of India. They have opposite leaves without stipules, usually lobed or palmate. The flowers are in axillary corymbs or racemes of no beauty, but abound in honey, and are very attractive to bees. The fruit is formed of two small winged nuts, each with one or two seeds.-The

MAPLE

Common Maple (A. campestre), a small tree, is a native of Britain, and of many parts of Europe and Asia. The wood is compact, fine grained, and takes a high polish; hence it is much used by turners and for carved work, being frequently substituted for the wood of the Holly and Box by mathematical instrument makers. Several nearlyallied species are found in the south of Europe.The Striped Bark Maple (A. striatum) of North

Fig. 1.-a, Common Maple (Acer campestre);
b, Japan Maple (Acer palmatum).

America, where it often forms great part of the undergrowth in woods, is so named because the smooth bark of the two-year-old branches are beautifully varied with green and white stripes; its wood, which is very white, is used for in laying in cabinet-work.-The Greater Maple (A. Pseudo-Platanus), commonly called Plane-tree in Scotland, and Sycamore in England, is a native of Europe, but a doubtful native of Britain, in which, however, it has long been common. It attains a height of 70 to 90 feet, has a spreading umbrageous head, and large, palmate, coarsely serrated leaves on long stalks. It is of quick growth, and succeeds well near the sea and in

Fig. 2.-Greater Maple (Acer Pseudo-Platanus):
a, fruit.

other exposed situations. The wood is white, compact, and firm, though not hard; it is capable of a fine polish, and is used by wheelwrights, turners, &c. It is not apt to warp. Stair-rails are often made of it, and pattern-blocks for manufactories, as well as bowls, bread-plates, &c. Sugar is sometimes made from the sap of this tree, as from that of several other maples; but the species

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which yields it most abundantly is the Sugar Maple (A. saccharinum) of North America, a species which much resembles it and abounds in the northern parts of the United States and in Canada, where large quantities of sugar are made from it. To obtain the sap the trees are tapped in February, March, and April, according to the locality and the season, and when warm days and frosty nights occur, which favour its flow. The boiling and refining processes are the same as those in the manufacture of cane-sugar. A single tree yields from two to six pounds in a season. vinegar is made from it, and a kind of molasses much superior to that from the sugar-cane, and much used in America with buckwheat cakes, &c. The wood of the Sugar Maple has a satiny appearance, and is used for cabinet-making; it is sometimes finely marked with undulations of fibre, and is then known as Bird's-eye Maple, and is used for veneers. The Sugar Maple is not so hardy in the climate of Britain as the Greater Maple, and seems to require a dry and sheltered situation.-The Norway Maple (A. platanoides), a native of the north of Europe, although not of Britain, is also found in North America; it much resembles the Great Maple. -A Himalayan species (A. villosum), a noble tree, found with pines and birches at great elevations, is sometimes grown in Britain. A large number of interesting and remarkably beautiful forms of several Japan species of Acer, such as A. palmatum, have been introduced; they have proved hardy in many favoured districts of England and Ireland, but are unsuited to Scotland generally, though they are occasionally seen there in conservatories cultivated in pots. In China and Formosa many new species have been discovered. A dye called Shinnamu is got from a Korean maple.

Maqui (Aristotelia Macqui), a plant of the family Elaeocarpacea (by some united with Tiliacea), is an evergreen or sub-evergreen shrub, of considerable size, a native of Chile. The Chileans make a wine from its berry, which they administer in malignant fevers. The Maqui sometimes ripens fruit against a wall in England, and is frequently cultivated as an ornamental shrub. A. racemosa (native currant) and A. fruticosa (mountain currant) are New Zealand plants of the same genus.

Mar, a district of Scotland between the Dee and the Don, comprising nearly the south half of Aberdeenshire, and subdivided into Braemar, Midmar, and Cromar. In 1014 a Mormaer of Mar was present at the battle of Clontarf; and in 1115 another figures in the foundation charter of Scone priory as 'comes' or earl. The male line of these Celtic Earls of Mar expired in 1377 with Thomas, thirteenth earl, whose sister Margaret married William, first Earl of Douglas. Their daughter, Isabella, in 1404 married Alexander Stewart, the Wolf of Badenoch,' who, after her death in 1419, was designated Earl of Mar. The earldom was in 1565 restored, or granted by a new creation, to John, sixth Lord Erskine, who at his death in 1572 had been for a twelvemonth regent of Scotland. John, Earl of Mar (1675-1732), who began life as a Whig, and by his frequent change of sides earned the nickname of Bobbing Joan,' headed the rebellion of 1715 (see JACOBITES), and died in exile at Aachen. In 1824 the reversal of his attainder was procured by his grandson, John Francis Erskine, but his grandson dying without issue in 1866, the question arose whether the earldom of Mar could pass through his sister to her son, John Francis Goodeve-Erskine (né Goodeve), or must go to his first cousin, Walter Coningsby Erskine, Earl of Kellie. And the strange solution of that question has been that in 1875 Walter Henry Erskine, thirteenth Earl of Kellie,

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