PAPER difficulty in tracing it appears to be partly due to the gradual introduction of linen into cotton-papers, and partly to the fact that it is extremely difficult, even to the present day, to distinguish some cotton and linen fibres from one another with any degree of certainty. The earliest example of paper of authentic date to be found in Great Britain is to be seen in the Public Record Office Museum. It is a letter from Raymond, son of Raymond, Duke of Narbonne, Count of Toulouse, to King Henry III., praying him to enforce payment of three marks and of one pound in money for three shiploads of salt, sold by R. de Carof to David, a linen-draper of London (1216-1222). The fibres of the above paper have been examined microscopically, and are found to consist of flax fibres in a good state of preservation. The paper is of a loose, velvety texture; but it is significant that the paper has suffered less deterioration during the seven hundred years of its existence than a common newspaper would do in a few days if exposed under similar conditions. The first English paper-mill was erected at Hertford or Stevenage-the Sele Mill, where John Tait the younger, the son of John Tait who was Lord Mayor of London in 1476, made the first white printing-paper. In De Proprietatibus Rerum, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, one of our earliest English printers, in 1495, appear the following words: And John Tait the Younger joye mote he broke That late hath in England do make thys paper thynne That now in our Englyssh thys booke is printed inne. When Henry VII. stopped at Hertford Castle on 25th May 1498, he visited the mill, as is shown by an entry in his household book, which still exists, and under that date is an item for a reward geven at the paper mylne 16/8.' There is also one in the following year: 'Geven in rewarde to Tate of the Mylne 6/8.' Tate's water-mark was a circle enclosing a star or wheel of eight points. Spielman, who erected the second and a larger mill at Dartford, was jeweller to Queen Elizabeth. It has been assumed that the paper of the first folio edition of Shakespeare, printed by Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount in 1623, was made at Spielman's mill; but from a careful examination of the copy in the British Museum Library, it appears evident that this paper, as also paper of books of a similar nature, was got together from various mills, and probably derived from Continental sources. Spielman adopted the crest of a fool with cap and bells, which can be seen on his tomb at Dartford Church -a mark which was common at his time, and which, no doubt, he borrowed. The first English patents in connection with paper-making were taken out in 1665. The first paper-mill in Scotland appears to have been erected at Dalry, on the Water of Leith (now part of Edinburgh), in 1675. The Privy Council granted the permission for the establishment of further mills in Scotland, but without hindering any already set up,' and also to put the coat-ofarms of this kingdom upon the paper which shall be made at these mills.' The water-mark' of a paper is produced by twisted wire attached to the surface of the mould in the shape of a design or device, which is permanently imparted to the texture of the paper in the course of manufacture. It is probable that water-marking originated in France, where, in the 14th century, the authorities made it compulsory for the manufacturers to seal all their goods by a particular mark by which they could be recognised, and which would serve as a guarantee of its good quality and its origin. The first authentic watermark is in an account-book dated 1301, and con 735 sists of a circle or globe surmounted by a cross. Most of the early marks are of ecclesiastical or biblical origin, adopted by monasteries or great families, who owned or controlled most, if not all, of the factories. The early water-marks are simple. Out of the 600 marks of France of the 14th and 15th centuries the following simple marks are given in order of frequency: anchor, the letter 'P,' hand, bull's head, unicorn, Holy Grail, the letter 'Y,' crossbow, dog, leopard, crown (single), fleurde-lis, lion, stag's head, bell, pear, dolphin, paschal lamb, crescent, sword (single and crossed), rose, trefoil, pair of scales, dragon, cock, heart, cardinal's hat, dove, post-horn. About the end of the 17th century many marks bearing royal arms or the arms of cities, in paper made either here or in Germany, were as well executed as the best produced at the present day. The initials of firms were introduced into marks of the 15th and 16th centuries; names followed later, and these constitute the chief water-marks of the present day. We find some quaint remarks by Fuller about the papers of his time (1608-61 A.D.) which may aptly be quoted here. He says: Paper partakes, in some sort, of the characteristics of the country which makes it-the Venetian being neat, subtle, and court-like; the French, light, slight, and slender; and the Dutch, thick, corpulent, and gross, sucking up the ink with the sponginess thereof.' An examination has been made by the authors of between two and three thousand water-mark papers of German origin in their possession, dating from the middle of the 14th century up to the present time. These papers, which are derived from various sources, may be taken as representative of the above-mentioned period, at least in so far as Germany is concerned. They nearly all consist of linen rags or flax, and a large number of them are elaborately, although in some cases somewhat crudely, 'water-marked' with the arms of cities which denote their origin; others being designs similar to those indicated above for France. The so-called wire-mark in a paper is the mark imparted to the paper by the wire sieve. This mark is either laid' or 'wove.' The laid is produced by a number of parallel wires placed side by side in the mould, with sufficient space between to allow the water to pass through, and held at equal distances apart by finer cross wires. In the earlier papers such laid marks were very coarse and crudely finished, and sometimes irregular. Early papers were made in this fashion until John Baskerville, the famous Birmingham printer, introduced in 1750 the woven wire to obviate the roughness of the laid paper. His beautiful edition of Virgil of 1757 is chiefly printed on this wove paper. Woven wire as a cover to the paper mould opened up fresh possibilities in water-marking, which took at least one hundred years from this date to come to maturity. Laid and wove papers can easily be distinguished by the ordinary observer by holding the papers up to the light. The use of the wove wire gave rise in time to shaded water-marking. Specimens of this are to be found in Herring's book of 1855. The process then employed was to make an electrotype of any model or design, forming a matrix or mould, which was mounted upon lead or gutta-percha, and pressed in contact with the wire-gauze. The gauze, bearing in relief the impression of the design, was then mounted as a cover on the wire mould. Sometimes the design is engraved upon a plate, and then transferred to the wire-gauze. Photo-mechanical processes cannot be used, as they do not afford sufficient relief. Paper made upon such moulds varies in thickness in parts according to the depth of impression in the wire. With fine gauze every gradation of tone may be produced. A portrait of the Emperor Napoleon was so produced, and exhibited at the Industrial Exhibition in Paris in 1849, since which time both Italian and English firms have produced similar effects of a very high order. The same process has been largely used for special bond, bank-note, and such-like papers. A process for introducing coloured water marks into the body of a paper was patented by Messrs A. & G. B. Fornari, paper-makers, of Fabriano, Italy, and is fully disclosed in their British patent, 1901. Each sheet is made in two layers, and between them is placed a third layer as a design in any colour. Sheets can be so manufactured as to render the colour design only visible by reflected light. The design or lettering is produced by placing a stencil over the mould cut in the form of the lettering. Certain Italian makers of hand made papers excel in this production. The earliest record we have of the use of blotting. paper is in 1465, and of brown paper in England in 1570 and 1571. Evelyn describes his visit to a paper-mill, and from his description it appears that it bears reference to a mill making brown papers. Up to the middle of the 18th century nothing but rags had been tried in the manufacture of paper with any degree of success, and the demand for paper was steadily outstripping the supply of rags. Certain learned men had paid great attention to this question, among whom may be mentioned Bruyset, Levier de Lisle, Klaproth, Linnæus, Mayer, Strange, Schäffer, Réaumur, and others. Réaumur published a brochure on the subject in 1719, which appears to have had chiefly in view the utilisation of wood. A book was published by Jacob Schäffer of Regensburg, Germany, the paper of which was made from about sixty different substances. The poems of the Marquis de Villette were printed in book-form in 1786; the leaves of this book consist of paper made from a number of different substances. These books are to be seen at the Patent Office Library. The British government at the close of the 18th century awoke to the necessity of legislating on behalf of paper-makers. Parliament had enacted that rags, old nets, and ropes (which are used for the manufacture of pasteboards, wrappers, and packing paper) should be imported duty free. It likewise allowed the free iniportation of all waste-paper, provided that it was torn to pieces and could be used for nothing but remanufacture. Parliament had also probibited the burial of the dead in shrouds made of cotton or linen on account of the loss it would occasion to paper-makers. the end of the 18th century many paper-mills were shut down for want of rags, and the scarcity of foreign supplies was popularly attributed to the use of rags as lint' in the European wars. At Matthias Koops (London, 1801) published a book on paper-making, one-half of which is printed on paper made entirely of wood. It would appear from an examination of this paper that the wood was chopped into small fragments and macerated with milk of lime, or a weak lye, in an open pan. In 1800 Koops was granted a patent for the manufacture of paper from straw. The other half of the above-mentioned book is made of paper entirely prepared from straw of a brown colour, and much inferior in colour to the paper Koops made from wood. The manufacture of paper from straw is now a large industry, particularly in Holland, where straw is cheap and is used chiefly in the manufacture of straw boards. The manufacture of mechanical' wood-pulp was first conducted by Keller, a Saxon watchmaker, with the assistance of an engineer called Völter. This is produced by mechanically reducing wood to the condition of pulp. Keller died a poor man, in spite of the fact that during his lifetime this product had created a large industry. It is now produced in millions of tons per annum, and is the most abundant and cheapest source of supply for common paper. In 1839 attempts were made to utilise esparto in the manufacture of paper. Thomas Routledge exhibited the fibre at the 1851 Exhibition. Its real introduction to paper-making is said to date from 1852. Some copies of the Society of Arts Journal, 28th November 1856 issue, were printed upon esparto paper. Up to 1861 Routledge, on his own statement, was the only paper-maker using esparto in England. When the American war broke out, entailing a short supply of cotton, esparto came into general use. From that time until 1890 the consumption of esparto rapidly increased, Great Britain to this day being practically the only user of it. The amount of esparto consumed annually in the United Kingdom is approximately 200,000 tons per annum, and the consumption is a fairly constant quantity, having long since reached the limits of supply. The grass grows on what is known as the Esparto zone,' bordering the shores of the Mediterranean. From early historical times esparto grass has been, and is still, used for such articles as carpets, sandals, ropes, baskets, nets, sacks, &c. It produces a soft paper particularly suitable for fine printing and illustrative work. In 1866 Tilghmann, an American, patented the manufacture of wood-pulp by the sulphite process, the pulp being prepared by macerating wood under pressure with sulphite liquor. He has been described as 'the father of the sulphite process.' Like Keller, he benefited very little by his discoveries. It was left to such men as Mitscherlich, Francke, Ekman, Graham, Kellner, and Partington to bring these processes to a commercial success. Sulphate as distinguished from sulphite wood-pulp is now one of the chief sources of supply. Simultaneously the treatment of wood with caustic soda was developed, and has now been brought to a high state of perfection. Of late years sulphate wood-pulp has taken the place of soda wood-pulp; this differs from the last mentioned only in that the sulphate of soda is used to make up the loss occasioned during the recovery process, the sulphate of soda being chiefly converted into caustic soda. Paper that is not sized is known as waterleaf, and is more or less of the nature of blotting-paper. In order to render it ink-proof and suitable for most commercial purposes a sizing material has to be used. According to Wiesner, papers after 1339 were sized with gelatine; for centuries prior to that starch had been used, but starch alone does not render paper suitable for writing upon. Gelatine was probably first prepared by macerating vellum and parchments; but as supplies of this material became inadequate, horns, wet-hide pieces, and such-like materials came into use. A cheaper method of sizing, and one which is now universally used except on the highest class of papers, was discovered about 1800 by M. F. Illig, and is known as rosin-sizing. He appears to have kept this secret until 1806 or 1807, when he communicated it in a pamphlet, translated as Instructions for Sizing Papers in the Pulp, after a Sure, Simple, and Cheap Method. This size is made by dis solving rosin in a boiling solution of carbonate of soda to produce resinate of soda. By using an excess of rosin a thick viscous liquid is obtained which yields a milky liquid when dissolved in water. This solution is added to the pulp, after which alum is added in sufficient quantity to precipitate the rosin. The effect upon the finished paper is to harden and strengthen it, and render it ink-proof. Various mineral matters are used in the manufacture of paper, the chief of which is china-clay. It was first used secretly to adulterate paper about the middle of the 19th century. Although used primarily to cheapen the production of papers, it is found to impart useful qualities, and gives to the paper an improved surface for printing upon, and renders it more opaque. Paper can be made to contain up to 20 or 30 per cent. of china-clay, but if the clay be used in such large quantities the strength and durability of the paper is much impaired. For very strong papers, such as those used for bags in banks and for the insulation of electric cables, hemp and manila fibre are used, the source of supply being old ropes and cordage. For common brown papers jute bagging is the chief source of supply, and for cheap yellow wrappers, newspaper wrappers, &c., the jute is used in a semi-bleached condition in admixture with wood pulp. Hemp, carefully bleached and beaten in a particular manner, is used in the manufacture of India paper. The papermaker converts his own waste papers into paper again by mixing with new material. Waste papers from all sources, such as envelope cuttings, trimmings, surplus copies of newspapers, old books of all descriptions, come into the hands of dealers, and are sorted and graded and sold, largely to cardboard makers. Common newspaper is made of about fourfifths mechanical and one-fifth chemical woodpulp, rosin-sized. The better-class printings are made of chemical wood pulp with dif ferent proportions of mechanical; those better still, of chemical wood pulp containing esparto fibre in_varying proportions. Papers such as cheques are made almost entirely of esparto fibre. Esparto, Side-view of a Continuous Paper-making Machine. 2 PULP AND SAVEALL PUMPS. being without strength, requires some admixture with chemical wood-pulp. Blotting papers are made almost entirely of cotton, beaten in a special manner to render it spongy and absorbent. High class writings, account-books, drawing and suchlike papers are made almost entirely of rags. All hand-made papers are made from rags. PAPHOS frame covering the tubes and wire is pivoted close to the suction-boxes, and the maximum 'shake' is at the end of the wire which first receives the stuff. On some modern machines the upper couching-roll and some of the vacuum-boxes are dispensed with, the lower couching-roll serving as a vacuum or suction-roll. The gauze-wire returns Before completing our account of the mechanical underneath from the couching-roll to the pressdevelopment of paper-making it is necessary to view roll, the web of paper passing from the couchingbriefly the whole modus operandi. Rags as received roll to an endless felt through the first press-rolls, are dusted, sorted by hand into different grades, cut where it comes in contact with the bare press-roll into small fragments either by hand or machine, on its upper surface, and through the second again dusted through a revolving sieve, boiled in press-rolls, where it receives contact on its under spherical boilers with caustic soda or lime under surface. At this point it contains about 25 to pressure, from whence they are discharged, drained, 27 per cent. dry fibre and 75 to 73 per cent. washed, and 'broken-in' in breakers, beaten to moisture. The rest of the moisture has to be pulp in the beaters, and discharged into a 'stuff' removed by heating. This is accomplished by the chest, ready for the machine. Esparto is mechani- web being brought over and under a series of cally dusted, picked by hand free from roots, &c., steam-heated rollers, and kept in direct contact as it passes over a travelling belt into vomiting therewith by means of a series of dry felts. When boilers, where it is boiled with caustic soda under partially dry it is sometimes submitted to a treatpressure, washed and bleached in potchers,' and ment between smoothing-rolls, after which it is beaten in the beaters. Chemical wood-pulp is completely dried by further steam-heated cylinders treated, after reduction to small pieces and the and a surface given to it by a series of calenders, removal of the bark, by one or other of the pro- the rough deckle edge being removed by rotating cesses already referred to at the pulp-mills, and circular knives, and finally reeled at F. If shipped as pulp, either wet or dry, bleached or necessary it is cut into narrow widths, and at the unbleached, to the paper-maker, who adds it to same time re-reeled on another machine or into his potcher or bleaching engine if required to be the form of sheets. High-class papers have to pass bleached, or direct to the beater. Mechanical through the salle, where the sheets are individually wood-pulp, as received from the pulp-mills, is inspected and graded into good,' retree,' and 'outfurnished direct to the beater. The waste liquors sides.' If the paper is to be gelatine-sized, this confrom the boiling of esparto and soda wood-pulp, dition is secured by passing the reel through a trough together with the washings, are evaporated, in containing gelatine solution, through squeezingcinerated, and the alkali recovered, causticised, and rolls, and over and under a series of skeleton drums, used over again. All weaker liquors, such as rag in each of which a fan rotates; or if the paper is in liquors, are too dilute for recovery, and sulphite the form of sheets, these are dipped by hand or liquors are discharged with effluent waters. The passed continually by means of a travelling felt mixing of the various ingredients is done in the through a bath of gelatine, the sheets being afterbeater; this is a machine the common form of wards air-dried in a room at a suitable temperature. which is an oblong trough with a midfeather round which the material circulates, the beating being performed by a revolving roll furnished with knives which come in contact with fixed knives. The beating process-i.e. the reduction of the raw material to the condition of finished pulp-takes from two to eight hours, according to requirements. The rosin-sizing, minerals, starch, colour, &c., are added to the beater. On completion of the beating operation the stuff is discharged into the stuffchest. From the stuff chest (which is kept agitated to preserve uniformity, and which acts as a reservoir for the machine), the stuff flows over sandtables to deposit any heavy impurities, and through strainer-plates provided with very narrow slots for keeping back any unbeaten or foreign particles, to the pulp-vat, A, provided with a rotating-hog or wheel, from whence it flows over a lip along a rubber apron to an endless travelling wire-gauze, BB, which carries on each side of it a rubber band or deckle strap, which determines the edge of the paper. The wire is supported by a number of small brass rollers. The water passes through the wire-gauze into a shallow trough or save all, ee. Further water is sucked through by the suctionboxes, which are operated by the vacuum pumps. Towards the end of the wire and close to the suction-boxes a dandy roll rotates upon the surface, and imparts to it the laid or wove marks and water-mark. Further water is removed as the web passes between the couching-rolls, b, which consist of metal or wood, either or both being covered with a thick felt jacket. During its passage the wire receives a lateral 'shake;' this 'shake,' an essential process in paper-making, assists in felting the fibres that is, causes them to lie in various directions, otherwise they tend to set themselves parallel to the flow of the liquid and movement of the wire. The (1907); Hand-made Papers of Different Periods,' by Paper-hangings. See WALL-PAPER. Minor, extending along the southern shores of the Paphos, two ancient cities in Cyprus. Old Paphos (now Kyklia) was situated in the western part of the island, about 14 miles from the coast. It probably was founded by the Phoenicians, and was famous, even before Homer's time, for a temple of Aphrodite, who was said to have here risen from the PAPIAS sea close by, whence name 'foam-sprung.' This was the home of the Paphian Aphrodite,' and hither crowds of pilgrims used to come. The other Paphos (Papho or Baffa) was on the seacoast, about 8 miles west of the older city, and was the place in which the apostle Paul proclaimed the gospel before the proconsul Sergius. Papias, Bishop at Hierapolis, in Phrygia, in the earlier half of the 2d century, is known to us only from references by Irenæus, Eusebius, and a few others, and from fragments of his lost work preserved in their writings (see especially Eusebius, Historia Eccl. iii. 39). Irenæus speaks of him as a hearer of John-evidently meaning the apostle. Eusebius aptly quotes Papias himself against Irenæus on the point; but, while the quotation justifies his criticism thus far, it does not fully bear out his own view that Papias claimed to have been a hearer of two other disciples of the Lord, Aristion and the elder (not the apostle) John. There is, then, no very reliable evidence of personal intercourse with any of the immediate followers of Jesus. On the other hand, some of the links between Papias and the apostles are definitely known; for two daughters of the apostle Philip, living in Hierapolis, related traditions to him, and he was a 'companion of Polycarp' (69-155 A.D.), Bishop at Smyrna, who in his youth had been a disciple of the apostle John. The statement, however, in the Chronicon Paschale, that Papias suffered at Pergamum in the year of this contemporary's martyrdom at Smyrna, rests on the compiler's misreading of Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv. 15). The only work which he is known to have written is the Logion kyriakōn exegesis (Exposition of Oracles of the Lord'), in five books, which on various grounds, including an expression in a frag. ment discovered in modern times, may be probably assigned to the period 140-150. It is now generally agreed that the signification of oracles' is not to be absolutely limited to discourses,' and that by 'Oracles of the Lord' we are to understand a record, or records, of the Lord's sayings, includ ing at least a setting of narrative. Part of the author's design was to supplement his expositions with trustworthy oral traditions. But the scanty remains are enough to show that Papias was, as Eusebius says, 'of very small intellect,' credulous, and fond of recording the wonderful. His doctrinal characteristic is a quaint millenarianism, with traces of the Apocalypse of Baruch. There are also some indications that he knew the fourth gospel. See the Apostolic Fathers of Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn, of Lightfoot (1891), or of Funk (1901); Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography, and Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopädie; for an English translation, the AnteNicene Library, vol. i. Papier-mâché (Fr., ' chewed paper '), a name given (not by the French) to a material consisting of paper-pulp, or of sheets of paper pasted together, and treated to resemble varnished or lacquered wood or sometimes plaster. Among eastern nations, where varnished and decorated articles in papier-mâché (such as boxes, trays, and pen-cases) have long been made, the finest work has been produced in Persia, and next to it in Kashmir. The Japanese kind of papier-mâché, manufactured by glueing together a number of damped sheets of soft and flexible paper upon moulds, is light, strong, and elastic, and was at one time used in that country for helmets and other parts of armour. No doubt it was from one or other of these eastern countries that the art of working in papier-mâché was acquired by Europeans. Articles of papier-mâché were extensively made in France in the first half of the 18th century, and later in Germany. The painted papier-mâché Vernis Martin snuff-boxes and other articles, made by a coach-painter named Martin, who had a peculiar way of varnishing them, were in the 18th century popular throughout Europe, and fine specimens are still sought after by collectors. Papier-mâché appears to have been introduced into England for the purpose of imitating Japanese trays of lacquered wood. In 1772 Henry Clay of Birmingham took out a patent for making papiermâché of sheets of specially prepared paper pasted together upon a mould, and produced panels for doors and walls, besides cabinets, screens, tables, tea-trays, &c. The best papier-mâché is made by Clay's method. A second variety is made from paper-pulp to which glue has been added; it is pressed between dies to give it the required shape. A third kind is made of coarse fibrous material, mixed with earthy matters and size, certain chemicals being added to render it incombustible. Carton-pierre, which has been extensively employed for the internal decoration of buildings (much in the same way as plaster), is formed of paper-pulp mixed with whiting and glue. It is moulded, backed with paper, allowed to set, and dried in a hot room. Ceramic Papier-mâché (Martin's patent, dated March 15, 1858) is a very plastic substance, which can be readily worked into any required form. It is composed of paper-pulp, resin, glue, drying oil, and sugar of lead, well kneaded together. For ordinary papier-mâché wood-pulp is now the principal ingredient, though the high-class article as described above is still made to some extent. But it is in relation to the New Testament canon, and especially to what is known as the synoptic problem, that Papias is of real importance. The fragment bearing on Mark runs thus: This also the elder (John) said: "Mark, having become the interpreter (recorder) of Peter, wrote down accurately whatever he remembered, without, however, recording in order what was either said or done by Christ," &c. Many scholars maintain that the words suit the second gospel as we have it, while others who deny this accept them as an The article after being moulded is heated, dipped account of its groundwork. Still greater interest in a mixture of linseed-oil and spirits of tar (other attaches to the short fragment on Matthew: mixtures are used) to harden it and make it resist Matthew, then, composed the oracles in the moisture, placed again in a stove, and when taken Hebrew (Aramaic) language, and each one inter-out planed and filed to give it the required finish. preted them as he could. This statement has It now gets several coats of tar varnish and lampoften been called in question, but the best authori- black, each of which is rubbed down with pumice. ties now hold that Papias is correct as to the It is then stoved once more, decorated, treated Aramaic original, and that the canonical gospel, with transparent varnish, and finally polished while evidently not a translation, is a Greek by hand. edition, by either Matthew himself or some writer unknown. On the whole, the two-document hypothesis of the origin of the synoptics coincides remarkably with the above two fragments (see GOSPELS). As to the rest of the canon, Papias quoted 1 John and 1 Peter, and was cited as an authority for the 'credibility' of the Apocalypse. | There are various ways of decorating papiermâché. For objects with a black varnished surface, what is called inlaying' with plates of mother-ofpearl shell, scarcely thicker than stout writing. paper, is largely practised. The pieces of shell are stuck on with varnish, and the design painted on them with a protecting varnish. An application |