River, he defeated Laborde at Roriça and Junot at Vimeiro, but then handed over the command to Sir Harry Burrard, who had been sent out to supersede him, to be himself superseded within a few hours by Sir Hew Dalrymple. The latter officer concluded the convention of Cintra with the French commander, who evacuated Portugal by 30th September 1808. The three English generals were examined before a court of inquiry as to this convention, but no further steps were taken. Sir John Moore, appointed to the command of the British troops (some 30,000) in Portugal on 6th October, had moved to Valladolid by 22d December, effecting a junction with Sir David Baird's division from Coruña. But the Spanish troops had in the meantime suffered a succession of defeats. The French had received large reinforcements; Napoleon himself was in Madrid; and Soult with 60,000 men was in his front. Moore therefore executed a rapid and masterly retreat to Coruña, and there fought a successful battle to cover the embarkation, being mortally wounded himself at the moment of victory. For three months no further steps were taken by the British government, but in December Sir John Cradock was sent out to take command in Portugal, and he took up a position covering Lisbon from the French, now under Marshal Victor. In this position Sir Arthur Wellesley, who was again sent out, found matters on 22d April 1809. The French armies in Spain now numbered nearly 400,000 men, divided into eight corps d'armée, under six marshals and Generals Junot and St Cyr, and operating in the north, south, east, and west. So long as Napoleon himself was able to direct operations they were characterised by unity of purpose and consequent success. Saragossa, attacked for the third time, after a memorable defence of sixty-three days, surrendered to Marshal Lannes on 21st February 1809, and many victories were gained over the Spanish levies; but in Catalonia St Cyr effected comparatively little. The outbreak of war in Germany drew Napoleon to that country in April, and the operations in Spain were somewhat neglected in consequence. The jealousies of the French commanders too prevented any unity of action there. Sir A. Wellesley first marched against Soult with 20,000 British and 40,000 Spanish under Cuesta, and drove him out of Portugal. King Joseph, with 80,000 men under Marshal Victor, attacked at Talavera on 26th July and suffered a severe defeat. For this victory Sir A. Wellesley was created Viscount Wellington, but, being left without reinforcements, he was obliged to retire to Almeida, while the defeat of the Spanish at Ocana (November 20) enabled the French to overrun the whole of Andalusia, except Cadiz, which still held out. Wellington, foreseeing the impossibility of taking the offensive at that time, prepared during the winter a triple line of earthworks, 29 miles long, from Torres Vedras on the Zizandra to Alhandra on the Tagus, thus covering his base at Lisbon. The French, 65,000 strong, under Masséna, moved against him in the spring of 1810, captured the fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo on the 11th July, and attacked him in the position of Busaco on 29th September. The attack was beaten off, and Wellington, carrying out his preconceived plan, retired slowly into the lines of Torres Vedras, carrying with him as much of the resources of the country as possible, and directing the Portuguese troops to harass the flanks and rear of the French. To avoid starvation Masséna, finding himself unable to attack Wellington's fortifications, and having lost 30,000 men, began to retire on 14th November. Reinforcements having reached Wellington early in 1811, he followed, defeated Masséna at Sabagal on 3d April 1811, and drove him out of Portugal. Soult in the meantime had defeated the Spaniards at Gebora (February 19), and captured the fortress of Badajoz. He also invested Cadiz, but General Graham with a force of 12,000 men attacked and defeated Marshal Victor's covering force at Barrosa on 5th March, which checked his further movements. Wellington, now designing to march on Madrid and thence against the French line of communications with Bayonne, found it necessary to capture Badajoz and Almeida. Masséna, at the head of 50,000 men, marched to the relief of the latter place. He was checked at Fuentes de Oñoro on 5th May, where a hard-fought battle caused him to retreat and abandon Almeida to the British. Wellington then turned towards Badajoz, which Soult endeavoured to relieve with a force of 23,000 men. The British (7000) and Spaniards (25,000) engaged him on the 16th May in the bloody battle of Albuera, compelling him to retire, which he did in a southerly direction. Matters were, however, in a very critical state for the British, for the whole of Valencia, Asturias, and Galicia was in the hands of the French, who still had nearly 300,000 men in Spain, and had received no other check except from General Hill in Estremadura and at Tarifa, which fortress repelled Soult. Napoleon, too, threatened to take the field again in person. But this was prevented by the outbreak of war between France and Russia, and early in 1812 Wellington commenced his wellmatured plan for freeing Spain from the invader. He captured Ciudad Rodrigo on 19th January, stormed Badajoz on 6th April, and called in Hill's division from the south. Marmont, who had collected his troops about Salamanca, found his flank threatened, and had at first to retire; but on 22d July he turned upon the British, and fought the battle of Tormes, where he was wounded and his army defeated. Wellington entered Madrid on 12th August. King Joseph then withdrew Soult from Andalusia to Valencia, where they joined Suchet. But the Spanish army neglected to guard the British line of communications, and Clausel, who succeeded Marmont, proved so formidable a general that Wellington again found himself obliged to retire towards Salamanca and Portugal. Events elsewhere, however, lessened the power of his enemies, reducing their numbers to 197,000 men. Jealousy existed between Joseph and his generals; and Wellington's position was strengthened by his appointment as commander-in-chief of the Spanish and Portuguese armies. These now amounted to 200,000 men, of which 70,000 Anglo-Portuguese had been brought into a good state of discipline. He again advanced eastward in the spring of 1813, obliging the French to evacuate Burgos and the line of the Ebro. They attempted to withstand him at Vitoria on 21st June, but sustained a crushing defeat, abandoning all their artillery, stores, and baggage. The blockades of Pampeluna and St Sebastian followed. Joseph, who had quarrelled with Soult, was superseded in the command, which was given to the latter. In spite, however, of great skill on his part, a series of terrible battles in the Pyrenees were uniformly disastrous to him. St Sebastian was taken on 7th October, the victory of Nivelle won on 10th November, and Wellington enabled to base himself on the northern ports. In February 1814 Bayonne was invested, on 27th Soult was defeated at Orthes, and again at Toulouse on 10th April, which city was occupied by the British. But Napoleon had already abdicated, having, after the disastrous Russian campaign, been overpowered by the allied forces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, by whom France was invaded and Paris taken. See also articles on France, Spain, Portugal, Wellington, Napoleon, Soult, Masséna, Sir John Moore, PENITENTIAL Vitoria, Badajoz, Torres Vedras, Coruña, Busaco, &c.; Napier's History of the Peninsular War (1828-40), and Oman's (1902 et seq. ). Penitential, a book of the codified Canon law relative to penances and their imposition and relaxation; see CASUISTRY, PENANCE. Penitential Psalms, seven Psalms, so called as being specially expressive of sorrow for sin, accepted by Christian devotion as forms of prayer suitable for the repentant sinner. They are Psalms vi., xxxii., xxxviii., li., cii., cxxx., and exliii. of the Authorised Version (vi., xxxi., xxxvii., l., ci., cxxix., and exlii. of the Vulgate). They were very early set apart, and have a special place in the Roman Breviary; more than one pope attached an indulgence to the recital of them. The most frequent in use is the 51st (50th), the Miserere (q.v.). Penitentiary, the name given to one of the offices of the Papal court, and also to the dignitary (a cardinal, called Penitentiarius) who presides over it. The subjects which come under the notice of the penitentiary are all matters relating to the confessional, especially the absolution from sins and from canonical censures, reserved to the pope. -For Penitentiary in another sense, see PRISONS. Penjdeh, or PANJDEH. See AFGHANISTAN, TURKESTAN. Penkridge, a town of Staffordshire, on the Penk, 6 miles S. of Stafford by rail, in an agricultural district; pop. 2600. Penmaenmawr, a watering-place of Carnarvonshire, 4 miles SW. of Conway by rail; pop. 4500. The urban district forms part of the Carnarvon boroughs parliamentary constituency. The mountain of Penmaenmawr, the northern extremity of the Snowdon group, is 1553 feet high; on its summit are the remains of a great British fort, Dinas Penmaen. acquainted with him. On his return to England, Penn, WILLIAM, the founder of the colony of Pennsylvania, was the son of Admiral William Penn, and was born at London, 14th October 1644. His early years were spent partly in Essex and Circumstances having turned his attention to the partly in Ireland, where his father had several New World, he in 1681 obtained from the crown, estates, the gift of Cromwell. Penn studied at in lieu of his monetary claim upon it, a grant of Christ Church, Oxford, and while there was con- territory in North America. Penn wanted to call verted to Quakerism by the preaching of a disciple it Sylvania, on account of its forests, but the king of George Fox, named Thomas Loe. He objected (Charles II.) insisted on the prefix Penn in honour personally to attend the services of the Church of of his father. His great desire was to establish a England, and to wear the surplice of a student-home for his co-religionists in the distant West, both of which he considered eminently papistical. where they might preach and practise their conA story which, however, cannot be proved, tells victions in unmolested peace. Penn, with several how Penn, along with some companions who had friends, sailed for the Delaware in September 1682, also become Quakers, attacked several of his fellow- was well received by the settlers, and in November students, and tore the obnoxious robes from their held his famous interview with the Indian tribes, backs. At all events his persistent nonconformity under a large elm-tree at Shackamaxon, afterwards caused him to be expelled from the university. Kensington, and now a part of Philadelphia. He His father was so excessively annoyed at his con- planned and named the city of Philadelphia, and duct that he gave him a thrashing, and turned him for two years governed the colony wisely and out of doors; but he soon afterwards relented, and well, but on strictly Puritan principles. Not only sent his son to travel on the Continent, in the hope Quakers, but persecuted members of other religious that change of scene and the gaiety of French life sects sought refuge in his new colony, where from would alter the bent of his mind. They failed, the first the principle of toleration was established however, to effect this, but the youth certainly by law. acquired a grace and suavity of address that he did not before possess. In 1666 the admiral sent him to Ireland to manage his estate of Shangarry in the county of Cork, and act as clerk of the cheque at Kinsale Harbour. Penn acquitted himself to his father's complete satisfaction; for in matters of business he was as practical an Englishman as in religion he was an out-and-out mystic. In the city of Cork, however, he again fell in with Thomas Loe, and for attending a Quaker meeting was, along with others, imprisoned by the mayor, but was immediately after wards released on appealing to the lord president of the Council of Munster, who was personally Towards the end of the reign of Charles II. Penn returned to England to exert himself in favour of his persecuted brethren at home. His influence with James II.-an old friend of his father's-was so great that many people have never felt quite satisfied about the nature of their relations. The suspicion, however, that Penn allowed himself to be used as a tool by the court is not justified by any known facts, and Macaulay-who with an ungracious animosity has urged the view of his complicity in some of the disgraceful incidents that followed Monmouth's rebellion-has been convicted. of haste and inaccuracy in several important par ticulars. At anyrate, his exertions in favour of the Quakers were so far successful that in 1686 a proclamation was issued to release all persons imprisoned on account of their religious opinions, and more than 1300 Quakers were set free. In the April following James issued an edict for the repeal of all religious tests and penalties, but the mass of Nonconformists mistrusted his sincerity, and refused to avail themselves of it. After the accession of the Prince of Orange as William III. Penn was twice accused of treason, and of corresponding with the exiled monarch, but was acquitted. In 1690 he was charged with conspiracy, but was not arrested. Nevertheless, in the following year, the charge was renewed. Nothing appears to have been done for some time, but Penn at last, through the kindly offices of his friends, Locke, Tillotson, and others, had the matter thoroughly investigated, and he was finally and honourably acquitted in 1693. In 1692 he had been deprived of his government, but it was restored to him in 1694. In the latter year his wife died, and Penn published a memoir testifying to her great virtues; but in less than two years he married again, his second wife being Hannah Callowhill, of Bristol, a Quaker lady. In 1699 he paid a second visit to the New World, where Pennsylvania required his presence to restore peace and order after the arbitrary behaviour of his deputy. His stay, which lasted two years, was marked by many useful measures, and by efforts to ameliorate the condition of both the Indians and Negroes. He departed for England towards the end of 1701, leaving the management of his affairs to an agent named Ford, whose villainy virtually ruined Penn. When the rogue died he left false claims against his master, which Penn refused to pay, allowing himself to be thrown into the Fleet in 1708. His friends afterwards procured his release, but not till his constitution was fatally impaired; for the last five years of his life his memory and understanding were greatly weakened. He died at Ruscombe, in Berkshire, July 30, 1718. The proprietary claims of his descendants were bought up by a pension of £4000, which in 1884 was commuted (see PENSIONS). See Macaulay's History of England, and J. Paget's Inquiry into the Evidence of the Charges brought by Lord Macaulay against William Penn (1858); the Life prefixed to his collected works (2 vols. 1726), and to later issues of select works;' and Lives by Clarkson (1849), Hepworth Dixon (new ed. 1856), Robert J. Burdette (New York, 1882), Stoughton (new ed. 1883), and J. W. Graham (1917). Pennant, THOMAS, traveller, was born of a good old Welsh family at Downing, near Holywell, Flintshire, 14th June 1726, and was educated at Wrexham, Fulham, and Hadley. In 1744 he went up to Queen's College, Oxford, but he left without taking a degree, having meanwhile, in 1746, ridden down into Cornwall-the first of his many tours. These included visits to Ireland (1754); the Continent (1765), where he made the acquaintance of Buffon and Voltaire; Scotland (1769 and 1772), which was then, he says, 'almost as unknown as Kamchatka, but ever since has been inondée with southern visitants;' and the Isle of Man (1774), besides rambles through England and his native principality. He married twice, in 1759 and 1777; was made member of the Royal Society of Uppsala, an F. R.S., and a D.C.L. of Oxford; and died at Downing, 16th December 1798. From boyhood a naturalist, for years a correspondent of Linnæus, Pennant published British Zoology (1765-77), British Quadrupeds (1771), Arctic Zoology (1785). History of London (1790), &c.; but to-day he is chiefly remembered by his Tours PENNELL in Scotland (3 vols. 1771-75) and Wales (2 vols. 1778-81), the former of which works extorted from Johnson the admission: He's a Whig, sir, a sad dog; but he's the best traveller I ever read; he observes more things than any one else does.' See the amusing Literary Life of the late Thomas Penant, Esq., by Himself (1793), and the memoir prefixed to Sir John Rhys's edition of the Tours in Wales (3 vols. Carnarvon, 1883). Pennat'ula, an interesting marine animal whose quill-like or feather-like appearance is suggested by the title and by the popular name Sea-pen. It is one of the Alcyonaria, and a good type of the very distinct order Pennatulacea. Like almost all Alcyonarians, it is a colony of polyps or zooids, but, as in other Pennatulacea, the first-formed polyp becomes long and substantial, and turns into a support for all the rest. The lower part of the support forms a stalk which is fixed in the mud on the floor of the sea; the upper part, or rachis, gives off, by budding, numerous secondary polyps or zooids. These are of two kinds-(a) larger autozooids,' nutritive and sexual, which fuse together in bilateral leaves or pinnules; and (b) inconspicu ous Ventral View of PenFig. 1. natula phosphorea (about one-half natural size). 'siphonozooids,' which have no tentacles, are nonsexual, and occur in crowds on the rachis, serving to keep up internal currents of water. Up the centre of the stalk and rachis there runs a calcareous axis, and around both kinds of zooids, as well as in the flesh between them, there are numerous smooth red needles of lime, which give the whole colony a fine colour. When a living Sea-pen is touched in the dark it becomes brilliantly luminescent or phosphorescent, the seat of the lightproduction being inside the larger zooids. A Fig. 2. Cross section of the axis and one 'leaf' set of fused Polyps (after Marshall). The most ventral polyp is longest and oldest. common British species, Pennatula phosphorea, about 5 inches long, is common off the coasts in water ten to twenty fathoms deep; a magnificent form, P. grandis, from the northern waters of both the Old World and the New, may be over 2 feet long. See A. M. and W. P. Marshall, Report on Pennatulids (Birmingham, 1882), Kölliker's 'Challenger' Report (1880), Hickson's 'Siboga' Report (1918). Pennell, JOSEPH, American etcher and book illustrator, born in 1860 at Philadelphia, has achieved great distinction at exhibitions throughout the United States and Europe, and is represented in most of the notable galleries. He has PENNI also written numerous books including A Canter- Penni, GIOVANNI FRANCESCA, usually called I Pennine or PENNINITE, mineral of the chlorite group, found in the Pennine Alps. A hydrou silicate of aluminium, magnesium, and iron, it occurs in long green rhombohedra, pleochroic from clear green to brown or reddish. Pennine Alps. See ALPS.-For the Pennine Range, see GREAT BRITAIN. Pennisetum, a genus of grasses, natives of Pennon. See FLAG. The Appalachian (q.v.) system of mountains watercourses. Much of this section is heavily wooded. The The geology of Pennsylvania is particularly remarkable on account of the great development of the different periods of the Paleozoic era. formations in the south-eastern part of the state are in dispute, but the vicinity of Philadelphia is generally admitted to be Archæan, and a little farther north is a belt of Quaternary alluvium. The Silurian deposits, which extend along the Hudson River in New York, continue into Pennsylvania and form the Kittatinny Mountains. The Devonian area of New York also covers a large part of the northern and north-eastern portion of Pennsylvania. West of the Kittatinnies the mountains present alternate Silurian and Devonian formations. West of the Alleghanies, throughout the great bituminous coalfields, the rocks are mainly The mountains and the western conglomerate. plateau region were originally highly elevated tracts, and have suffered to a vast extent from They have contributed nearly all the erosion. material for building up the lowland regions of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, and for the formation of the Lower Mississippi valley. The geological disturbances have been greatest and most frequent in the eastern part of the state, where the beds of anthracite coal occur at all angles and in some cases in a vertical position, whereas the bituminous coal-beds of the western field are nearly horizontal. The breaking of the strata and the enormous pressure to which the eastern coal-deposits have been subjected has resulted in giving Pennsylvania the most valuable anthracite basins of the country. It is a notable fact that the percentage of gas in the coal regularly increases from the eastern ranges to the western coal-measures. Although Pennsylvania is one of the richest mineral regions of the world, there is no department of her mineral wealth in which she exercises such exclusive control as in her deposits of anthracite coal. The bituminous coal is excel The lent in quality and variety, and the amount is prac It is estimated that with an out- The successful boring for Petroleum (q.v.) in 1859 produced an excitement which was not surpassed even by the discovery of gold in California. Fortunes were made and lost in a day. The mining of petroleum and the manufacture of the various articles produced from it have created new and important industries. The utilisation of natural gas for heating and manufacturing purposes also 854 PENNSYLVANIA PENNY for a time modified methods of living in western lic schools now are attended by over one and a half Pennsylvania. There are large zinc-works at South | million pupils, and there are more than thirty uniBethlehem, and nickel is obtained in Lancaster versities and colleges in the state. A system of county. Copper is mined to a limited extent; slate, Soldiers' Orphan Schools was established in 1865, marble, and limestone are largely quarried; and and there are numerous other charitable and edu salt-springs abound in the petroleum region. There cational institutions. There is a large foreign are many medicinal springs. element in the population; many of the miners and ironworkers, especially, are of Irish, Hungarian, and Italian birth, and serious riots have not seldom occurred (see also MOLLY MAGUIRES). Among the farmers a very large proportion are of German descent, and still speak the patois known as 'Pennsylvania Dutch. This belongs to the South German dialects, and is most closely related to the Pfälzisch; it preserves many old and curious German words, but is also interspersed more or less with Germanised English words, according to the locality. There are perhaps two million people around Philadelphia and New York who speak the patois; and in the country southeast of the Alleghanies they have their own dialectal newspapers. Specimens (spelt phonetically) of the dialect may be given: Ich trink tschenerli rooter wei' (I generally drink red wine); and 's wetter iss d'r gants daak schee gwest' (the weather has been fine the entire day). See Prof. S. S. Haldeman's Pennsylvania Dutch (1872); H. H. Reichard, Pennsylvania-German Dialect Writings (Lancaster, Pa. 1918); also A. J. Ellis's Early English Pronunciation (part iv. 1875). The eastern part of the state is drained by the Delaware and its tributaries the Schuylkill and Lehigh. The Susquehanna, with its affluents the North Branch, the West Branch, and the beau. tiful Juniata,' occupies the central drainage area. The Susquehanna is too rapid and too shallow for navigation, but it is used for floating quantities of timber, and coal, lumber, and other products are carried by the canals along its banks. A portion of the north-western region belongs to the valley of the Genesee, but the greater part of western Pennsylvania is drained by the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, which, uniting at Pittsburgh to form the Ohio, furnish the state with a great highway of inland navigation. Pennsylvania has 16,000 miles of railroad and 800 miles of canals. For the Pennsylvania system,' see PRISONS. In the mountains and wooded sections the smaller wild animals are still abundant. The panther, wild cat, and black bear are occasionally seen, and in some places the deer and wild turkey are not uncommon. The climate is healthful, but subject to extremes, and much modified by differ. ences of elevation. Heavy snows fall on the moun tains in winter, and the rivers of the western half of the state are often flooded in spring and summer (see e.g. JOHNSTOWN). Nearly one-fourth of the state is wooded; lumbering is one of the sources of wealth in the north, and farther south and west are great forests of hemlock, which maintain some of the largest tanneries in the world. In the Pocono swamps and plateaus, between the Wyoming and Kittatinny Mountains, the virgin growth of beech is known as the 'Shades of Death. The soil, except in the mountains, is rich and fertile. Agriculture is a leading occupation, and in many crops Pennsylvania holds a high rank. The mountain regions and the western plateau are well suited for grazing, and the horses, cattle, sheep, and dairy products are noted for their excellence. The most important industries of Pennsylvania are mining and manufacturing. The amount of capital in vested is greater than in any other state, and in the value of her manufactured products Pennsylvania is surpassed only by New York. Her commerce, both foreign and domestic, is very extensive. Shipbuilding is an interest of importance; riversteamers are built at Pittsburgh, and the perfection reached in the construction of iron steamships on the banks of the Delaware has given to that stream the title of the Clyde of America.' The state contains 67 counties, and returns 2 senators and 36 representatives to congress. Philadelphia, the metropolis of the state, is the leading manufacturing city of the Union and ranks third in population (1,823,158 in 1920). Among other important cities are Pittsburgh, with which the large adjoining city of Allegheny is combined (588,193), Scranton (137,783), Reading (107,784), Erie (93,372), Harrisburg, the capital (75,917), Wilkes-Barre (73,833), Allentown (73,502), Johnstown (67,327), Altoona (60,331), Chester (58,030), Lancaster (53,150), Bethlehem (50,358). Pop. of the state (1850) 2,311,786; (1900) 6,302,115; (1910) 7,665,111; (1920) 8,720,159. Penny (O.E. pening or pending; apparently from pand, a pawn,' Ger. pfand, Lat. pannus), a British coin, first mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of the West Saxons, about the close of the 7th century. It was at this time a silver coin, and weighed about 22 troy grains, being thus about th of the Saxon pound-weight. This relation to the pound-weight is evidently derived from the usage of the early Franks, who retained the Roman division of the libra into 20 solidi, and the solidus into 12 denarii (the denarius being thus the 240th part of the libra or pound). See MARK. Halfpence and farthings were not coined in England till the time of Edward I., History. The first permanent settlement in the but the practice previously prevailed of so deeply state was made in 1643 by Swedes, at the present indenting the penny with a cross mark that the site of Chester. Their colony of New Sweden was coin could be easily broken into two or four parts twelve years later conquered by the Dutch. as required. Silver farthings ceased to be coined In 1664 the English obtained possession, and the under Edward VI., and silver halfpennies under territory now called Pennsylvania was in 1681 the Commonwealth. Up to this time the penny granted by Charles II. to William Penn (q.v.). had steadily decreased in weight; and under ElizaThe friendly relations already existing between the beth it was finally fixed at 7 grains, or of an whites and the Indians were re-established by Penn ounce of silver, a value to which the subsequent by a treaty, which was faithfully observed by both copper pennies closely approximated. In 1672 an parties for more than fifty years. During the French authorised copper coinage of pence, halfpence, and and Indian wars, however, and again during the farthings was established. In 1797 twopenny pieces war of the revolution, the frontier settlements were were coined, but were soon withdrawn. The penny attacked. In the struggle for independence and of the present bronze coinage, first issued in the end in the civil war Pennsylvania took a prominent part, of 1860, is of only about half the value of the old and witnessed a number of the most famous battles copper penny and as metal is worth only about oneand events connected with each. Schools were seventh of a penny. The German pfennig was also established by the earliest settlers, and a system originally a silver coin, bearing the same relation of education formed part of the original scheme of to the German pound of silver as the English government prepared by William Penn. The pub-penny to its pound. Now the nickel ten-pfennig |