491 Crusades. mode of capturing salmon being similar to those employed by bag and stake nets;" the CRUSADE, CHILDREN'S. One of the strange spasmodic fevers of the middle ages. In 1212, a peasant boy in France began to preach a crusade of boys only. Although strong measures were taken to suppress the movement, it went on; and it is stated that more than 30,000 boys embarked at Marseilles for the holy land, expecting miraculous aid in reaching Palestine and converting the Moslems. By shipwreck and capture and sale into slavery, the venture came to a disastrous end. Two similar crusades, each of 20,000 children, were undertaken in Germany; one army crossing the Alps at Mont Cenis, and the other at a more westerly point. All ended miserably. CRUSADES is the name given to the religious wars carried on during the middle ages between the Christian nations of the west and the Mohammedans. The first of these was undertaken simply to vindicate the right of Christian pilgrims to visit the holy sepulchre. On the conquest of Palestine, however, the object of the C. changed, or at least enlarged, and the efforts of the subsequent crusaders were directed to the rescue of the whole land from the Saracens, who had repossessed themselves of it. From an early period in the history of the church, it was considered a pious act to make a pilgrimage to the holy sepulcher, and to visit the various spots which the Saviour had consecrated by his presence. When Palestine was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th c.. that fierce but generous people respected the religious spirit of the pilgrims, and allowed them to Under the Fatimides of Egypt, who conbuild a church and a hospital in Jerusalem. quered Syria about 980 A.D., the position both of the native Christian residents and of the pilgrims became less favorable; but the subjugation of the country, in 1065, by brutal hordes of Seljuk Turks from the Caucasus rendered it intolerable. These barbarians, but recently converted to Mohammedanism, were nearly as ignorant of the Koran as of the Scriptures. They hardly knew their fellow-religionists, and are said to have wreaked their vengeance on the Mussulmans of Syria, as well as on the Christians. The news of their atrocities produced a deep sensation over the whole of Christendom. The first to take alarm were, naturally enough, the Byzantine monarchs. In 1073, the Greek emperor, Manuel VII., sent to supplicate the assistance of the great pope, Gregory VII., against the Turks, accompanying his petition with many expressions of profound respect for his holiness and the Latin church. Gregory-who beheld in the supplication of Manuel a grand opportunity for realizing the Catholic unity of Christendom-cordially responded; but circumstances prevented him from ever carrying the vast designs which he entertained into execution, and the idea of a crusade died gradually away. It was, however, revived by his successor, Urban II., an able and humane man, whose sympathies were kindled by the burning zeal of Peter the hermit, a native of Amiens, in France, who had made a pilgrimage to the holy land, witnessed the cruelties perpetrated by the Turks, and was now traversing Europe, preaching everywhere to crowds in the open air, and producing the most extraordinary enthusiasm by his impassioned descriptions of how pilgrims were murdered, robbed, or beaten; how shrines and holy places were desecrated; and how nothing but greed restrained the ruffian Turks (who made the As soon as the feelChristians pay heavy taxes for their visits to Jerusalem) from destroying the holy sepulcher, and extirpating every vestige of Christianity in the land. a crusade was ings of Europe had been sufficiently heated, Urban openly took up the question. Two councils were held in 1095. At the second, held at Clermont, in France, definitely resolved on. The pope himself delivered a stirring address to a vast multitude. of clergy and laymen, and as he proceeded, the pent-up emotions of the crowd burst forth, and cries of Deus vult (God wills it) rose simultaneously from the whole audience. These words, Deus vult, by the injunction of Urban, were made the war-cry of the enterprise, and every one that embarked in it wore, as a badge, the sign of the cross; hence the name crusade (Fr. croisade, from Lat. crux, a cross). First Crusade.-From all parts of Europe, thousands upon thousands hurried at the "The most distant islands and savsummons of the pope to engage in the holy war. "were inspired with this ardent passion. age countries," says William of Malmesbury, The Welshman left his hunting, the Scotchman his fellowship with vermin, the Dane his drinking-party, the Norwegian his raw fish." It is said that in the spring of 1096, not less than 6,000,000 souls were in motion towards Palestine. This, however, must be a huge exaggeration. What we do know positively is, that previous to the setting out of the great hosts of European chivalry, four armies-if disorderly and anarchic Crusades. multitudes, the mere dregs and refuse of Christendom, deserve that name-amounting in all to 275,000 persons, had departed for Palestine. The first consisted of 20,000 foot, and was commanded by a Burgundian gentleman, Walter the penniless. It marched through Hungary, but was cut to pieces by the natives of Bulgaria, only a few, among whom was Walter himself, escaping to Constantinople. The second, consisting of 40,000 men, women, and children, was led by Peter the hermit. It followed the same route as its predecessor, and reached Constantinople greatly reduced. Here the two united, crossed the Bosporus, and were utterly defeated by the Turks at Nice, the capital of Bithynia. A third expedition of a similar kind, composed of 15,000 Germans, led by a priest named Gottschalk, was slaughtered or dispersed in Hungary; which also proved the grave of the fourth, a terrible horde, consisting of about 200,000 wretches from France, England, Flanders, and Lorraine, who had swept along through Germany, committing horrible ravages, especially against the Jews, whom they murdered without mercy. Now, however, the real crusaders made their appearance: the gentry, the yeomanry, and the serfs of feudal Europe, under chiefs of the first rank and renown. Six armies appeared in the field, marching separately, and at considerable intervals of time. Their respective leaders were Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine; Hugh the great, count of Vermandois, and brother of Philippe, king of France; Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy, the son of William the conqueror; count Robert of Flanders; Bohemond, prince of Tarentum, son of the famous Guiscard, under whom was Tancred, the favorite hero of all the historians of the crusade; and lastly, count Raymond of Toulouse. The place of rendezvous was Constantinople. The Greek emperor, Alexius, afraid that so magnificent a host-there were in all not less than 600,000 men, exclusive of women and priests-might be induced to conquer lands for themselves, cajoled all the leaders, excepting Tancred and count Raymond-into solemnly acknowledging themselves his liegemen. After some time spent in feasting, the crusaders crossed into Asia Minor (accompanied by the unfortunate Peter the hermit). Here their first step was the siege and capture of Nice, the capital of sultan Soliman, 24th June, 1097. This monarch was also defeated by Bohemond, Tancred, and Godfrey, at Dorylæum. Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, now crossed into Mesopotamia, where he obtained the principality of Edessa. After some time, the crusaders reached Syria, and laid siege to Antioch. For seven months the city held out, and the ranks of the besiegers were fearfully thinned by famine and disease. Many even brave warriors lost heart, and began to desert. Melancholy to relate, among the list of cowards was the poor enthusiast who had planned the enter prise. Peter was actually several miles on his way home when he was overtaken by the soldiers of Tancred, and brought back to undergo a public reprimand. At length, on the 3d of June, 1098, Antioch was taken, and the inhabitants were massacred by the infuriated crusaders, who were in their turn besieged by an army of 200,000 Mohammedans sent by the Persian sultan. Once more famine and pestilence did their deadly work. Multitudes also deserted, and escaping over the walls, carried the news of the sad condition of the Christians back to Europe. But again victory crowned the efforts of the besieged. On the 28th June, 1098, the Mohammedans were utterly routed, and the way to Jerusalem opened. It was on a bright summer morning (1099) that 40,000 crusaders, the miserable remnant of that vast array which two years before had laid siege to Nice, obtained their first glimpse of Jerusalem. The emotion was intense, the scene sublime. On the 15th of July, after a siege of rather more than five weeks, the grand object of the expedition was realized. Jerusalem was delivered from the hands of the infidel. Eight days after the capture of the city, Godfrey of Bouillon was unanimously elected king of Jerusalem. His kingdom, at first comprising little more than the mere city of Jerusalem, was gradually extended by conquest until it included the whole of Palestine. A language resembling Norman French was established, a code of feudal laws drawn up-Jerusalem was erected into a patriarchate, and Bethlehem into a bishopric. The best part of Asia Minor was restored to the Greek empire, while Bohemond became prince of Antioch. For nearly fifty years the three Latin principalities or kingdoms of the east-Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem-not only maintained themselves against the attacks of the Mohammedans of Egypt and Syria, but greatly increased in size, power, and wealth. At Jerusalem were founded the two famous orders of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John and the Knights Templars. Second Crusade.-In 1144, the principality of Edessa was conquered by the emir of Mosul, and the Christians slaughtered. His son, Noureddin, advanced to destroy the Latin kingdoms of Syria and Palestine. Europe once more trembled with excitement. A second crusade was preached by the famous St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in Champagne; and early in 1147, two enormous armies, under the command of Louis VII., king of France, and Conrad III., emperor of Germany, marched for the Holy Land. Their united numbers were estimated at 1,200,000 fighting men. The expedition nevertheless, proved a total failure. The Greek emperor, Manuel Comnenus, was hostile; and through the treachery of his emissaries, the army of Conrad was all but destroyed by the Turks near Iconium, while that of Louis was wrecked in the defiles of the Pisidian mountains. After a vain attempt to reduce Damascus, the relics of this mighty host returned to Europe. Third Crusade.-The death-blow, however, to the kingdom of Jerusalem, and the power of the crusaders, was given, not by Noureddin, but by Salah-Eddin, commonly Crusades. called Saladin, a young Kurdish chief, who had made himself sultan of Egypt, and who aspired to the presidency of the Mohammedan world. He invaded Palestine, took town after town, and finally, in Oct., 1187, compelled Jerusalem itself to capitulate, after a siege of 14 days. The news of this led to a third crusade, the chiefs of which were Frederick I. (Barbarossa), emperor of Germany, Philippe Auguste, king of France, and Richard Cour-de-Lion, king of England. Barbarossa took the field first in the spring of 1189, but accidentally lost his life by fever caught from bathing in the Orontes. His army, much reduced, joined the forces of the other two monarchs before Acre, which important city was immediately besieged. In vain did Saladin attempt to relieve the defenders; and after a beleagurement of 23 months, the place surrendered. But the crusaders were not united among themselves. Philippe soon after returned to France; and Richard, after accomplishing prodigies of valor, which excited the admiration of the Saracens, concluded a treaty with Saladin, by which the people of the west were to be at liberty to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem, exempt from the taxes which the Saracen princes had in former times imposed." This, as has been previously noticed, was all that had been claimed by the first crusaders. On the 25th of Oct., 1192, Richard set sail for Europe. 66 Fourth Crusade.-Crusading unfortunately now became a constituent of the papal policy; and in 1203, a fourth expedition was determined upon by pope Innocent III., although the condition of the Christians was by no means such as to call for it. It assembled at Venice; but how entirely secular crusading had become, will be seen from the fact, that the army never went to Palestine at all, but preferred to take possession of the Byzantine empire. The leader of this host of pseudo-crusaders, Baldwin, count of Flanders, was seated on the throne of the east in 1204, where he and his successors maintained themselves for 56 years. Fifth Crusade.-This was commanded by Frederick II., emperor of Germany. It began in 1228, and terminated in a treaty between that monarch and the sultan of Egypt, by which Palestine was ceded to Frederick, who, after being crowned king of Jerusalem, returned to Europe, leaving his new possessions in a state of tranquillity. Sixth Crusade.-In 1244, a new race of Turks burst into Syria, and once more the Holy Land fell into the hands of these ferocious barbarians. Jerusalem was burned and pillaged. In 1249, Louis IX. of France (St. Louis) headed a crusade against them, but was utterly defeated, and taken prisoner by the sultan of Egypt. By the payment of a large ransom he obtained his liberty and that of the other prisoners. On his return to Europe he was regarded as a sort of martyr in the cause of Christ. Seventh Crusade.-This also was primarily undertaken by St. Louis, but he having died at Tunis in 1270, on his way to Palestine, prince Edward of England, afterwards Edward I., who had originally intended to place himself under the command of St. Louis, marched direct for Palestine, where his rank and reputation in arms gathered round him all who were willing to fight for the cross. Nothing of consequence, however, was accomplished; and Edward soon returned to England, the last of the crusaders. Acre, Antioch, and Tripoli still continued in the possession of the Christians, and were defended for some time by the Templars and other military knights; but in 1291, Acre capitulated, the other towns soon followed its example, and the knights were glad to quit the country, and disperse themselves over Europe in quest of new employment, leaving Palestine in the undisturbed possession of the Saracens. Effects of the Crusades.-While we cannot help deploring the enormous expenditure of human life which the C. occasioned, it is impossible to overlook the fact that they indirectly exercised a most beneficial influence on modern society. They secured for humanity certain advantages which it is difficult to see could have been otherwise obtained. M. Guizot, in his Lectures on European Civilization, endeavors to show their design and function in the destinies of Christendom. "To the first chroniclers," he says, "and consequently to the first crusaders, of whom they are but the expression, Mohammedans are objects only of hatred: it is evident that those who speak of them do not know them. The historians of the later crusades speak quite differently: it is clear that they look upon them no longer as monsters; that they have to a certain extent entered into their ideas; that they have lived with them; and that relations, and even a sort of sympathy, have been established between them." Thus the minds of both, but particu larly of the crusaders, were partly delivered from those prejudices which are the offspring of ignorance. A step was taken towards the enfranchisement of the human mind." Secondly, the crusaders were brought into contact with two civilizations, richer and more advanced than their own-the Greek and the Saracenic; and it is beyond all question that they were mightily struck with the wealth and comparative refinement of the east. Thirdly, the close relationship between the chief laymen of the west and the church occasioned by the C., enabled the former "to inspect more narrowly the policy and motives of the papal court." The result was very disastrous to that spirit of veneration and belief on which the church lives, and in many cases an extraordinary freedom of judgment and hardihood of opinion were induced-such as Europe had never before dreamed of. Fourthly, great social changes were brought about. A commerce between the east and west sprang up, and towns-the early homes of liberty in Europe-began to grow great and powerful. The C., indeed, “gave maritime commerce the strongest impulse it had ever received." The united effect of these Cryophorus. things, again, in predisposing the minds of men for a reformation in religion, has often been noticed. Other causes undoubtedly co-operated, and in a more direct and decisive manner, but the influence of the C. in procuring an audience for Luther, cannot be overlooked by the philosophic historian. CRUSCA, ACADEMIA DELLA. See ACADEMY. CRU'SENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB, 1795-1865; a Swedish historian, author of History of the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV., Adolphus; The House of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden; and other works. CRUSHERS, or BRUISERS, are implements used for reducing to small fragments corn, beans, linseed, oil-cake, and other similar hard food of horses, oxen, or hogs, in order that it may be more thoroughly subjected to the action of the gastric juice, and that no part of it may pass through the animal undigested. Seeds which enter the stomach with their husk or outer pellicle unbroken, often resist its powers, so that they contribute nothing to nourishment; and this is the case to a very large extent with corn given to old horses; but mastication is never so perfect, however good may be the condition of an animal's teeth, that the previous crushing of hard food will not be found useful. C. are of different kinds, and those intended for oil-cake are somewhat different from those suitable for grain; but the essential part generally consists of toothed, grooved, or otherwise roughened cylinders, revolving so as to bruise the food either against each other, or against a fixed plate of similar roughness.—CLOD-CRUSHER is the name of an agricul tural implement, which may be generally described as a toothed or roughened roller; and will be found noticed, with its uses, in the article ROLLER. CRU'SIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST, 1715-75; a German theologian, professor of theology at Leipsic. Two of the great objects of his life were to place philosophy on a thoroughly satisfactory basis for the future, and to bring philosophical conclusions into harmony with orthodox theology. His system was not successful, but it had a few enthusiastic supporters. CRUSTACEANS, Crustacea, a class of articulated animals, agreeing with insects, arachnida, and myriapoda in having articulated limbs; but differing from them in important respects, and particularly from all of them in the adaptation of the organs of respiration to an aquatic life, even those of them which live on land being generally inhabitants of damp places, and breathing by a kind of gills. Some of the lowest and minute aquatic C., indeed, are not provided with gills; but the aëration of the blood is supposed to take place through the surface of the body. The C. derive their name from the hard armor which in most of them covers the whole body, forming for it that sort of frame-work which is sometimes, not very correctly, called an external skeleton; and which, in those of highest organization, is very complex in its structure, and contains a large amount of calcareous matter-carbonate and phosphate of lime, so that it is in its substance intermediate between shell and bone —whilst in many of the lower and smaller kinds it consists principally of chitine, and corresponds more nearly in its nature with the integuments of insects. The body of a crustacean is composed of rings (see ARTICULATA), generally 21 in number, and the crustaceous covering corresponds with it in this respect; the rings, alike of the body and its armor, being in some cases very distinct, whilst in others some of them in a great measure coalesce or are consolidated together, of which the thorax of a crab affords an excellent example. The first seven rings are regarded as forming the head, the next seven, the thorax; and the remainder the abdomen, corresponding with the head, thorax, and abdomen of insects. The crustaceous covering is considered as a peculiar epidermis, having beneath it a true skin, from which it is an inorganic exudation; and, like the epidermis, it is cast off from time to time, that its place may be supplied anew, as the growth of the animal requires more room for the internal soft parts. In this moulting, or casting of the shell, the animal divests itself of its covering not in separate parts, but in one piece, including the coverings of the limbs, and even of the antennæ, although the membranes which connect the hard plates are split and torn. A period of apparent sickness precedes and agitation accompanies the process; and the thick muscular parts of the limbs of crabs and lobsters become soft and flaccid, so as to be much more easily extricated from their hard coverings. The loss of a limb, which sometimes takes place on such an occasion, and is otherwise a frequent occurrence, is easily repaired, for a new one grows in its stead; but it is a curious circumstance that in order to this reproduction, the limb must be broken off at a particular joint, the second from the body, thus leaving only a short stump; and when a limb is broken elsewhere, the animal itself exercises the remarkable power of throwing it off by this joint. The principal organ of locomotion in many C., as in the lobster, shrimp, etc., is the abdomen, terminating in fan-like appendages; by bending the abdomen suddenly down under the thorax, they dart backwards in the water. The limbs-which are connected with the thoracic rings-are, in some, organs of swimming; those of others are used for walking at the bottom of the water or on dry ground. Some have what are called false legs or pro-legs attached to the abdomen, often very different from the thoracic legs. The legs of some are fitted for burrowing. The first pair of legs is not unfrequently transformed into a pair of powerful claws or pincers-the last joint, but one being pro |