There were also many reconnaissance trips and explorations for roads which can hardly be called surveys. Some of the maps were not published but remain on file in the War Department.

Black Hills Survey. In 1874 Capt. W. Ludlow made expeditions through the Black Hills of South Dakota with N. H. Winchell as geologist. The results were given in a quarto volume issued in 1875. Later the Indian Bureau sent an expedition under W. P. Jenney and H. E. Newton to investigate reports of gold in these hills and a quarto report with folio of maps was published by the Survey of the Rocky Mountain region.

Pacific Railroads.- In 1853 the War Department began a series of explorations for routes for railroads across the Far West. The expeditions were conducted by army officers but had topographic and geologic assistants, who made surveys of various kinds. Among these geologists were Jules Marcou, Thomas Antisell, J. S. Newberry, W. P. Blake and James Schiel. The routes surveyed were not far from the several transcontinental railroad lines of to-day. The results were published in 13 quarto volumes which contain not only geographic results of the surveys but a large amount of information on natural history, resources, etc.

International Boundaries.-The boundaries of the United States have been surveyed by various organizations. In 1818 surveys were begun on the northern boundaries of New York, New Hampshire and Maine by United States army engineers. In 1822(?) the Northwest Boundary Commission, appointed under the Treaty of Ghent, made a survey of the boundary in the region about the outlet of Lake Superior, and in 1857-61 the United States Commission working under direction of the State Department surveyed the boundary west from longitude 110°. In 1872-75 the United States Boundary Commission under the State Department surveyed the Canadian boundary along the 49th parallel and a narrow strip of contiguous country from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains, connecting there with the survey from the west. The Louisiana-Texas line survey in 1840 was made jointly by engineers of the United States army and surveyors appointed by Texas. The results are in Senate Ex. Doc. 199, 27th Congress, 2d Session. Considerable boundary surveying has been done by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Mexican Boundary Survey was made by Maj. W. H. Emory in 1855-56 and its results were published in two quarto volumes which included geological observations by Parry and Schott. Detailed remapping of this boundary in 1889 was done by a joint International Boundary Commission consisting of three Mexican members, two army engineers and a member of the United States Coast Survey. The result was a folio of maps showing topography and profiles from El Paso to the Pacific. The southern boundary of Kansas was surveyed by Lieut.-Col. J. E. Johnson in 1857 and the Texas boundary in 1858-60 by a commission organized by the Interior Department.

Lake Survey. A survey of the Great Lakes was made by the War Department (corps of engineers) in 1841 to 1881. Very detailed charts (79) were prepared of the lakes, their

shores and of the straits and rivers immediately connected with lake navigation. In 1876-79 this work was extended down the Mississippi River to Memphis.

Hayden Surveys.—The survey under F. V. Hayden began in 1867 for the General Land Office and its work was in Nebraska Territory, but it was not until 1871 that it began much surveying. In 1873 it became the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories and in the next five years covered 170,000 square miles with topographic and geologic mapping, mostly in Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. James T. Gardner was chief geographer and A. D. Wilson and Henry Gannett were in charge of parts of the work. The principal geologists were A. C. Peale, W. H. Holmes, A. R. Marvine, F. H. Endlich and F. V. Hayden. Twelve annual reports and a series of quarto memoirs were published.

Geological and Geographical Survey of Rocky Mountain Region. These surveys were organized and conducted by Maj. J. W. Powell under the Interior Department. In 1869 Major Powell made his famous boat trip through the Grand Canyon under auspices of Smithsonian Institution. In 1871 continuation of his explanatory work in the West was provided for by the government and from that time to 1878 an area of 67,000 square miles was covered by topographic and geological surveys. A. H. Thompson was chief geographer and G. K. Gilbert, E. E. Howell, Capt. C. E. Dutton and C. A. White were assistant geologists.

Fortieth Parallel Survey. This survey organized and conducted by Clarence King and under direction of the chief of engineers, United States army, operated from 1867 to 1872. It prepared topographic (contour) maps and geological map of a wide strip of country contiguous to the 40th parallel west of the 105th meridian. The geological work was by Clarence King, S. F. Emmons, Arnold Hague and James D. Hague. John D. Gardner was in charge of topographic work. The results were published in seven quarto volumes and a folio.

Wheeler Survey. From 1869-79 extensiveexplorations were made in the West under direction of Capt. G. M. Wheeler of the United States army engineers. The title of the organization was United States Geographical Surveys west of the 100th meridian. Many hachured topographic maps were prepared of parts of Arizona, Utah, New Mexico and Colorado and the geology of various regions was mapped by G. K. Gilbert, A. R. Marvine, E. E. Howell, J. J. Stevenson, I. C. Russell and others. The principal results were published in three quarto volumes issued in 1875, 1881 and 1889.

United States Geological Survey.- In 1876 there were four geological surveys in progress, the Hayden, King, Wheeler and Powell with some duplication of work, a condition which roused so much criticism that Congress referred the consideration of the continuance of the work to the National Academy of Science. That body recommended the substitution of a single organization for the topographic and geologic work, and accordingly in 1879 Congress created the United States Geological Survey (q.v.) as a bureau of the Interior Department. This survey has been continued by annual appropriation (about $1,500,

000 in 1917). It has made detailed topographic maps of 40 per cent of the area of the United States. Large areas have also been mapped geologically, considerable public land classified in various ways and water resources determined. The maps are on various scales and sold at cost of paper and printing, most of them by the survey. Many of the geological reports are for gratituous distribution. Two hundred and eleven folios of the Geologic Atlas of the United States have been issued which sell from 25 to 75 cents each.

Reclamation Service. Many detailed_surveys have been made by the Reclamation Service in connection with its various projects, and many suggested ones. Some of the resulting maps have been issued in the various annual reports of the bureau and others are filed.

Isthmian Surveys.- Many surveys have been made by parties sent to the Central America and Panama by the United States government to obtain data for canal routes.

General Land Office.- The General Land Office created in 1812 (see PUBLIC LANDS) and since 1849 a bureau of the Interior Department, has surveyed a large proportion of the public lands in the States west of the Mississippi River, except Texas, and also Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Florida, Alabama, Wisconsin and Michigan. Many of the State lines were run by the Land Office. In the surveys by this bureau public lands are divided into townships six miles square, comprising 36 sections one mile square, the latter divided into quarter sections of 160 acres and in some cases, minor divisions, a system devised by Lieutenant-Colonel Mansfield in 1803. The enclosing lines are due north and south and east and west and owing to convergence of meridians and varying length of parallels at different latitudes the divisions are only approximate. The townships are numbered east and west from prime meridians, and north and south from standard parallels. The sections, ordinarily a mile square, are numbered thus:

few Indian reservations where contour lines have been used. This mapping covers most of the smooth surfaced or rolling lands but large areas of mountain lands are not yet subdivided. The maps are not issued but held in file in the general land office and local 'land offices in various public land States. The bureau does, however, issue general maps of the States and of the United States compiled largely from its own surveys.

Coast and Geodetic Survey. The work of mapping the coast of the United States was initiated by Congress, 10 Feb. 1807, on recommendation of Thomas Jefferson, with an appropriation of $50,000. F. R. Hassler was its first superintendent, beginning work in 1816 and continuing to 29 April 1818 as a bureau' of the Treasury Department. The surveys were then continued by the United States army engineers and by officers of the navy until the bureau resumed operations again in 1832 under the Navy Department with Hassler again as superintendent. On reorganization late in 1843 A. D. Bache became superintendent and he continued in charge until his death in 1867. Pierce, Patterson, Hilgard, Thorn, Mendenhall, Duffield, Pritchett, Tittmann and Jones were later superintendents. The geodetic work or determination of the form of the earth was made an additional function of the survey in 1878. The survey has prepared charts of the coasts and exterior waterways of the United States and of parts of its possessions, and mapped more or less of the coast, the District of Columbia and other areas. Many special reports on geodesy, tide tables and scientific researches of the bureau have been issued. The charts which are issued in sheets of various sizes and scales are sold at low rates directly by the bureau and by local agents in seaboard cities.

Mississippi and Missouri River Commissions. The Engineers corps, War Department has made a detailed survey of the Mississippi River and of its principal tributaries, showing topography of the shore, 1876-84. These surveys were intended primarily for guidance in the many engineering problems connected with improving the waters for navigation, a task on which the government had expended nearly $150,000,000 up to end of June 1916. The War Department has made special surveys for many river and harbor improvement projects.

Hydrographic Office (q.v.).—To this branch of the Navigation Bureau of the Navy Department is entrusted the preparation of many kinds of data relating to navigation. Numerous maps are produced in many cases based on original

surveys.

Forest Service.- The Forest Service of the Agricultural Department has made surveys in most of the Forest Reservations in some cases with detailed representation of topography and distribution of various kinds of timber. A series of atlases has been published and many maps are on file in the various offices of the bureau. Some work of this kind was also done by the United States Geological Survey in 18971900 and many maps were published in annual reports and professional papers. Since 1897 this survey obtains data as to forested areas in all districts mapped topographically.

Soil Surveys.- The Agricultural Department has made surveys of soils in many parts

of the United States, publishing the results on the detailed topographic maps by the United States Geological Survey. These soil maps are issued for gratuitous distribution.

Biological Survey.- The Agricultural Department is also conducting a survey to ascertain the geographic distribution of animals and plants.

Bibliography.- 'United States Geological and Geographic Surveys,' G. M. Wheeler, Vol. I, pp. 519-745; Report of Third International Geographic Congress' (Venice, Italy, by G. M. Wheeler, 48th Congress, Second Session. H. of R. Ex. Doc. 270, 1885); Emmons, S. F., The Geology of Government Explorations' (Geological Society of Washington, 1896); Merrill, G. P., 'Contributions to the History of American Geology' (Report of United States National Museum, 1904, pp. 189–734).

N. H. DARTON,

United States Geological Survey. SUSA, soo'sä, Persia, capital of the province of Susiana or Elam, on the Choaspes River, 50 miles west of Shuster, was one of the celebrated cities of the Old World, renowned in Biblical history. Shushan, meaning lilies, is alluded to in the Old Testament and on the cuneiform tablets of Assyria. It has a rectangular form without walls, but possessed a strongly fortified citadel, which enclosed the stately palace and one of the most important treasuries of the Persian kingdom. Numerous rivers water the plain in which it stands, some of which partly surrounded the ancient city. All the Persian kings, beginning with Darius I, erected beautiful palaces, the remains of which belong to the most magnificent ruins of Asia. It was here that Esther's intrigue was developed; Daniel saw the vision at Shushan, and here he was buried. Consult Billerbeck, Susa) (Leipzig 1893); Dieulafoy, 'L'Acropole de Suse' (Paris 1888-92); de Morgan, J., Fouilles à Suse (Paris 1900).

SUSAN NIPPER, a character in 'Dombey and Son' by Charles Dickens. She is an attendant upon Florence Dombey and is noted for her sharp tongue.

SUSANNA, Soo-zăn'a, the Jewish woman who figures in the book of Susanna, as the intended victim of two elders who obtained her condemnation to death on a false charge. The prophet Daniel proved her to be innocent, and obtained a reversal of the sentence. The date of about 600 B.C., is ascribed to the event. See SUSANNA, BOOK OF; BIBLE.

SUSANNA, Book of, the 13th chapter of Daniel in the Septuagint version of the Old Testament. It is accepted as canonical by Roman Catholics, but rejected by Protestants. (See BIBLE). Consult Kay, D. M., in Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament' (Oxford 1913).

SUSPENSION, in canon law, a censure of which a clergyman is forbidden to exercise his order or to enjoy the fruits of his benefice. Partial suspension inhibits a cleric from the exercise of his spiritual functions, or from the administration of his benefice, or only from a part of his sacred functions: for example, a bishop may be suspended from ordaining, and yet be perfectly free to govern his diocese. Entire suspension prohibits all use of order, juris

diction or benefice. In the English canon law, as in that of the Roman Catholic Church, a suspension is removed by absolution, by revocation of the censure by the person inflicting it or by dispensation.

SUSPENSION BRIDGE. See BRIDGE.

SUSPENSION RAILWAY, a railway in which the carriage is suspended from an elevated cable or track. See MONORAIL.

SUSQUEHANNA, Pa., borough of Susquehanna, on the Susquehanna River and on the Erie Railroad. It is 38 miles north of Carbondale and 23 miles southeast of Binghamton, N. Y. It has machine shops, chemical works and manufactures of washing machines and metal ware. Pop. (1920) 4,500.

SUSQUEHANNA, süs-kwě-hăn’a, a river formed by two branches, an eastern or northern and a western, which unite at Northumberland in Pennsylvania. The eastern branch, which is considered the main stream, issues from Lake Otsego in New York, and has a length of abou 250 miles. The western branch rises in the western slope of the Alleghenies, and flows very circuitously east-southeast for about 200 miles. The united stream flows south and southeast, passing Harrisburg, Wilkesbarre and Binghamton, N. Y., enters Maryland, and after a course of about 150 miles flows into the northern extremity of Chesapeake Bay at Port Deposit. The navigation was much obstructed by rapids, but by constructing canals the river has been made navigable for a considerable distance from the Chesapeake.

SUSQUEHANNA COMPANY, The, in American history a land company formed in 1754, chiefly by Connecticut farmers, for the colonization of the Wyoming country. By a treaty with the Five Nations, 11 July 1754, an enormous tract of country was purchased for $10,000. It began at the southern boundary of Connecticut and followed in a northerly direction the course of the Susquehanna to northern Pennsylvania. In 1785-86 many disputes arose between the Susquehanna Company and_the Pennsylvania claimants of the territory. This was called the "Pennamite War.»

a

SUSQUEHANNA UNIVERSITY, Lutheran institution of higher education at Selingsgrove, Pa., founded in 1858. The faculty numbers 22; the average annual attendance of students is 325; tuition fees are $75 to $90; living expenses, board, etc., $175 to $225; the productive funds amount to $72,000; the total income, including tuition and incidental charges, amounts to $42,000. The college colors are orange-maroon. The library contains over 16,000 volumes. The number of graduates since organization number over 1,000.

SUSSISTINNAKO, the Spider, was according to the Sia Indians of New Mexico, the first of all beings in the lower world. He lay out the directions by drawing one line of meal from east to west and another from north to south. Within the magic confines thus laid out he sang his magic songs and rattled his magic rattle, and as he sang and rattled people, animals, birds and insects appeared at his call. He created two mothers who were the mothers of all; then he divided the people into clans, after he had created the earth for them, and he made the Cloud People,

the Lightning People, the Thunder People and the Rainbow People, and he commanded them to work for the people of Haarts (the earth). He divided the world into three parts: Haarts (the earth); Tinia (the mid-plain); and Huwaka (the upper plain); and to the Clouds and the Rainbow he gave the Middle Plain. When all this had been done he had the two original mothers create the sun, the moon and the stars.

SUSTENTATION FUND, the name specifically applied in the Presbyterian denomination to a fund for the support of poorer churches. All important religious bodies have funds of this character. The object is to enable communities unable from their own means to support properly a pastor or minister, to have the benefit of religious services.

He

SUTHERLAND, Alexander, Canadian Methodist clergyman: b. Guelph, Ontario, 17 Sept. 1833; d. 1910. He learned the printer's trade, but studied for the ministry and in 1859 was licensed as a preacher and stationed at Niagara. He removed to Therold in 1861 and afterward preached at Drummondville, Hamilton, Yorkville, Toronto and Montreal. was secretary of the Conference in 1870-71, and after the union of the Methodist churches in Canada he was secretary and treasurer of the missions of the Church. In this capacity he made extended tours of Canada; and in 1879 he inaugurated a campaign to raise $75,000 for the purpose of clearing the missions department of debt and succeeded in raising $116,000. Author of A Summer in Prairie Land' (1882). SUTHERLAND, George, American jurist: b. Buckinghamshire, England, 25 March 1862. He came to the United States with his parents in 1864, received his academic education in Utah; studied law at the University of Michigan, began practice at Salt Lake City in 1883; was elected to the first Utah senate as a Republican in 1896; served in Congress in 1901-03; in the United States Senate, 1905-17; appointed Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 5 Sept. 1922; qualified, 2 Oct. 1922.

SUTHERLAND, Howard, United States senator: b. near Kirkwood, Mo., 8 Sept. 1865. In 1889 he was graduated at Westminster College, Fulton, Mo., studied law at Columbian (now George Washington) University, but did not complete course. In 1889-90 Mr. Sutherland was editor of the Republican of Fulton, Mo., and from 1890 to 1893 served from clerk to chief of population division of the 11th census. In 1893 he removed to Elkins, W. Va., where for 10 years he was connected with the Davis-Elkins coal and railway interests, becoming their general land agent. For some years he has engaged in coal and timber land operations on his own account and is president of the Greenbrier Land Company of Valley County. In 1908-12 he was member of the West Virginia State senate and from 1913 to 1917 was a member of the 63d and 64th Congresses, serving as member-at-large from West Virginia. In 1916 he was elected to the United States Senate for the term 1917-23. Senator Sutherland is a member of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.

SUTLEJ, sut'lėj, India, a river forming the eastern boundary of the Punjab. It rises in

Tibet, in the sacred lakes of Manasarowar and Rakas-Tal, flows through the latter lake at an elevation of 15,000 feet, follows a circuitous course through the Himalayas, finally joining the Indus at Mithankot. Its principal tributaries are the Li, Beas and Chenab; it passes in its upper course through scenery of a wild and savage grandeur. Its entire length is 900 miles; a swift current marks its upper course, often forming deep cascades and waterfalls; it is navigable only in its lower course. The river is spanned by splendid bridges, that of the Indus Valley Railway connecting the shores near Bhawalpur, and another iron bridge of the Sind, Punjab and Delhi Railway, near Jullunder.

SUTPHEN, William Gilbert Van Tassel, American author: b. Philadelphia, 11 May 1861. He was graduated at Princeton in 1882; since engaged in editorial work. He has written 'The Golficide' (1898); The Cardinal's Rose' (1900); The Golfer's Alphabet' (1899); (The Nineteenth Hole (1901); The Doomsman' (1903); The Gates of Chance' (1904), etc.

SUTRA, soo'trą, in Sanskrit literature, the technical name of aphoristic rules and of works consisting of such rules. There is a bibliography of sutra texts in Macdonell's History of Sanskrit Literature' (London 1913). See SANSKRIT Literature.

SUTRO, soo'tro, Adolph Heinrich Joseph, American engineer and philanthropist: b. Aixla-Chapelle, Rhenish Prussia, 29 April 1830; d. San Francisco, 8 July 1898. Coming to the United States in 1850 he went to California where he engaged in business for 10 years. In 1860 he visited Nevada and planned the Sutro tunnel, a charter being secured on 4 Feb. 1865. It was begun on 19 Oct. 1869 and cost nearly $4,000,000. The main tunnel is 20,000 feet long, 1,650 feet below the surface, 12 feet wide and 10 high. On the discovery of gold, years before, he had invested heavily in San Francisco real estate and became very rich. In 1894 he was elected mayor of that city, to which he gave a park and other gifts. His library of 250,000 volumes was peculiarly rich in works on the history of the Pacific settlement. The library was almost totally destroyed in the fire following the earthquake of April 1906. The 100,000 volumes saved were, after continued litigation, turned over to the State Library in 1913.

SUTRO TUNNEL. See TUNNELS AND TUNNELING.

SUTTAS, Buddhist, a collection of the most important religious, moral and philosophical discourses taken from the sacred canon of the Buddhists. It gives the most essential, most original and most attractive part of the teaching of Buddha, the Sutta of the Foundation of the Kingdom of Righteousness and six others of no less historical value, treating of other sides of the Buddhist story and system. The translator, T. W. Rhys Davis, gives as the dates of Buddha's life of 80 years about 500-420 B.C.

SUTTEE, su-te', in India, a term applied to the self-immolation of Indian widows on the funeral pile of their deceased husbands. The origin of this practice is of considerable antiquity, but it is not enjoined by the laws of the great legislator, Manu, nor is it based on the Vedas. This practice was abolished by Lord