shaded. The houses are mostly well built and there is a large modern market house. It is the chief town and chief port of the Sulu Archipelago and carries on a large trade with Singapore and Manila, as well as a native interisland trade. In the channel between the roadstead and Maroñgas is a pearl oyster bed, which employs a large number of fishing boats and the town is the centre of this industry.

SULZBERGER, Mayer, German-American jurist: b. Heidelsheim, Germany, 22 June 1843; d. Philadelphia, Pa., 20 April 1923. During the Revolution of 1848 his father came to America with his wife and family, settling in Philadelphia in 1849. He received his early education at the public schools where he graduated in 1859 from the Central High School, being at the same time an apt pupil at home in Hebrew language and literature. On 16 Sept. 1865 he was admitted to the bar, where his career was brilliant and his commanding abilities received their recognition on his appointment as judge of the Court of Common Pleas (1895-1915), and presiding judge (1902-15). Judge Sulzberger edited The Occident for a year after its founder's death, was tendered the position of United States Minister to Turkey during President Harrison's administration but declined the honor, was prominently identified with Jewish charities and instructions, and was a trustee of the Baron de Hirsch Fund. He is the author of 'Am ha-Aretz (the ancient Hebrew Parliament) (1909); The Polity of the Ancient Hebrews (1912); The Ancient Hebrew Law of Homicide' (1915).

SUMAC, any shrub or tree of the genus Rhus. Some species are poisonous to the touch. (See PLANTS, POISONOUS). One of the most common innocent eastern species of America, and the largest, is Rhus hirta, the staghorn sumac, so called because its young, short branches are covered with down, in color and texture not unlike a deer's antlers "in the velvet." The trees are not more than 30 feet high, but are apt to grow in clumps and have a tropical appearance, with their long pinnate leaves turning to vivid yellow and crimson in autumn. Their autumnal beauty is further enhanced by the torch-like panicles of fruits, small drupes matted together by the crimson plush of the hairs that cover them in to pyramidal bunches terminating the branches. These fruit-masses remain throughout the winter, and are a favorite food of chickadees, in spite of the fur and the acidulous taste. The sour flavor was taken advantage of by the Indians and colonists who made a cooling drink from the plant. The crimson hairs also yielded a red dye, when immersed in boiling water. The wood is yellow and handsomely veined, but is very brittle; it is, however, occasionally made into canes. The fragrant, or sweet-scented sumac (Rhus crenata), is a low shurb with aromatic leaves and large panicles of greenish, honey-scented flowers which bloom in spring and are a famous food for bees. R. glabra is the upland or smooth sumac, which is smooth and even glaucous; its leaves were added to the tobacco of the aborigines; and an efficient gargle is made from the refrigerant and as'tringent drupes. The dwarf black or mountain

sumac (R. copallina), similar in size to the above species, and like them having panicles of bloom succeeded by scarlet masses of drupes, is more bushy in growth, forming low thickets in sandy or dry, almost sterile soil, and is peculiar in that the main stem of its compound leaves bears coriaceous wings between the leaflets. The latter are shining above, and pubescent beneath, and, like those of R. glabra, when dried are material for tanning. They are, however, said to be inferior to those of the Rhus coriaria, native to and cultivated in the Mediterranean regions, which are especially valuable for tanning fine leathers, as the lighttinted moroccos. They are collected, dried, and exported in great quantities in the shape of a fine dust. The Venetian sumac, or smoketree, is also used for the same purpose. (See SMOKE-TREE). The sumacs are very useful tree shrubs to the Indians of the western United States. The twigs of Rhus trilobata, the aromatic sumac, having small three-lobed leaves, are soaked, scraped and split, resoaked in water, and then woven into baskets., sometimes in conjunction with other materials. These light, straw-colored withes are used probably more than any material except the willows for native basketry. R. diversiloba, the poisonoak, although greatly dreaded by the Cherokees, who endeavor to conciliate it by addressing it as "my friend," does not seem to injure certain Californian tribes so much. They even use it as medicine, sometimes poisoning themselves internally by the practice, and use twigs of it as water-sprinklers in sacred ceremonies; it is also a material for woven fabrics. Its juice, which turns black rapidly on exposure to air, is utilized as an intense black dye for basketry. R. trilobata likewise yields a dye. A strong decoction of the leaves and twigs is made, to which is added roasted pinyon gum and yellow ochre, forming a rich, blue-black fluid, which is practically an ink, the tannic acid of the sumac combining with the iron in the yellow ochre, and being strengthened with the carbon of the burnt_gum. The lacquer or varnish of China and Japan is nothing but the sap of another sumac (R. vernicifera) or varnish-tree, cultivated in those countries. When the bark is cut, the shrub exudes a juice, darkening after exposure. When kept for some time this sap becomes thick and viscous, blackish-brown in color in one mass, but yellow-brown and transparent in thin layers. When properly applied in successive layers and dried, it becomes a natural varnish of great hardness and unalterability. Nut galls, or iron in solution, added to this, or gold and other metals, make the various kinds of lacquer or japanning, which it often takes years to perfect. Japan wax is a vegetable wax used chiefly for candles and obtained by crushing, steaming and pressing the drupes of this species and of the Asiatic R. succedanea.

SUMATRA, soo-mä'trą, an island in the Indian Seas immediately under the equator. Its extreme limits are lat. 5° 45' N., and 5° 55' S.; long. 90° 40′ E., and 106° 5' E. In the direction of its greatest length it extends from northwest to southeast. Its greatest length is about 1,000 miles, and its greatest breadth about 260 miles; its area is about 161,600 square miles. It ranks in magnitude as the second of the

Asiatic islands, Borneo being the first, population is about 4,000,000.

The

Topography. The west side of the island is mountainous, but the east side has a totally different character, and spreads out into interminable plains nearly as level as the sea. The mountains viewed from the west appear at first view to form a continuous ridge, but a closer examination reveals breaks in the chain, and discloses the fact that two or three ridges lie behind that which is mainly seen from the coast. This chain, known generally as Barisan, extends from the northwest of the island to Sunda Strait. The islands of Pulo Bras and Pulo Wai really form detached parts of it, and near them, at the northwestern end of the island, it attains a height of 5,663 feet in Mount Yamura. Farther south, but still in Achinese territory, are the lofty volcanoes Abong-Abong and Lusé, whose heights are estimated at over 11,000 and 12,000 feet respectively. Mount Ophir, close to the equator, is an extinct volcano 9,610 feet above sea-level. Not far to the south is Mount Merapi, one of the most violent of Sumatran volcanoes. Other notable peaks are: Talang (8,343), an extinct volcano, from which the natives obtain sulphur; Indrapura (12,000), the highest peak yet ascended in Sumatra; Mount Paung; Mount Kaba (5,413); Mount Dempo (10,562), an active volcano; and Mount Tangkamus (7,422), near the Straits of Sunda. Granite, slates, clay-schists and similar rocks abound, and limestones of Carboniferous age occupy much of the surface. Tertiary formations cover a very large area. All the peaks seem to be volcanic. Various metals have been found in the island, and excellent coal is known to be abundant.

The

Rivers and Lakes.- The rivers that flow toward the west are naturally short and of small importance for navigation, but those traversing the broad alluvial eastern slopes are long and deep. Many of them form large del

tas.

In order from south to north the most important are: the Musi or Palembang, about 400 miles long, passing the town of Palembang and entering the sea opposite the island of Banka, an important highway for trade; the Jambi or Batang-Hari, over 500 miles long, and navigable throughout most of its length, important as an outlet for the chief coal-fields; the Indragiri; the Kampar; the Siak, rising near Mount Ophir; the Rakan and the Batu Bara. Of the west-coast rivers the Singkel is the most important. The lakes of Sumatra are mostly mountain lakes, and not a few of them occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes. The largest are: Toba, 500 square miles in area, at the source of the Singkel River; Singkara and Maringin, about the centre of the island near the west coast; Korinchi, near Indrapura; and Danau. Sumatra is almost bisected by the equator, and in consequence the monsoons of its northern extremity have different directions from those of the southern end. During the periods when the monsoon is changing, navigation in the neighboring waters is impeded by squalls. The climate is generally of the usual tropical character, and is on the whole rather unhealthy.

Flora and Fauna.- The flora of Sumatra differs much from that of Java. It is very rich in forest trees, many of which yield valuable timber or other useful products, such as ben

zoin and gutta-percha. Pepper is the chief cultivated product. Sago and rice are also cultivated, and excellent tobacco and coffee are grown for export. The fauna of Sumatra in some respects resembles that of Borneo more closely than that of the countries with which it is almost in contact. The elephant and the tapir, frequent in Sumatra, are unknown in Java. The former island has the two-horned, the latter a single-horned rhinoceros. The orang-utan is found locally. The tiger occurs both in Sumatra and Java, but not in Borneo; Sumatra has also some species of deer and antelope, the sunbear, a peculiar kind of hare, and the muntjac. The most notable birds are the Argus pheasant, several trogons, bush-shrikes, rain-birds, pheasant-cuckoos, etc. Of the domesticated animals the most important by far is the pig, next to which rank the cow and the horse. The buffalo is more frequent in the low country, but is only valued as food, and never yoked for labor as in Java. The horse of the highlands is small, but vigorous and capable of enduring much fatigue.

Government. The authority of the Dutch extends, nominally at least, over the greater part of the island, and may be considered to be real over all the coast districts. In the interior, however, there are still considerable tracts under native rulers, or forming village confederations, over which the Dutch exercise little or no authority. The Dutch possessions are divided into six chief divisions. The government of the west coast, with an area calculated at 31,649 square miles, extends along the middle portion of the west coast, and includes Padang and other districts. The governor resides at Padang. The residency of Benkulen lies to the south of that of the west coast, and has an area of 9,399 square miles, Benkulen being the capital. The residency of Lampong comprises the southern districts of the island on the Strait of Sunda, and has an area of 11,284 square miles. The residency of Palembang on the east coast, with an area of 53,497 square miles, lies to the north of Lampong, and has as its capital the large town of Palembang. The district of Indragiri,_farther north, belongs to the residency of Riou, which is named after the island of that name. Farther north is the residency of the east coast, its area being estimated at 35,312 square miles; and at the extreme northwest that of Achin, which still remains semiindependent, area 20,471 square miles.

Racial Characteristics.- Sumatra is inhabited by a very mixed population. Malays collected from every quarter of the archipelago inhabit the coast. Hindus appear to have settled at an early age in the north, and to have modified the Malay type of the Achinese. The Arabs in the island, though few in number, have always formed an important class. Chinese are numerous, particularly on the east coast. Northwest of Palembang the OrangKubu live in a savage state, and shun any intercourse with the neighboring tribes. The OrangKubu must not be confounded with the people of Menankabu, a pure Malay race inhabiting the highlands of Padang, which some are disposed to consider the original seat of the Malay stock. The Battaks are a peculiar and interesting race. Like the Malays they are of short stature, but they differ from the former in being strongly built and well proportioned. The

art of writing has been known among the Battaks from a date beyond the reach of tradition. Their characters are peculiar, and also their mode of writing, for they begin at the bottom of the page at the left-hand side, and place letter above letter in a vertical column till they reach the top, when they return to the bottom. Their ancient books are written in a brilliant ink on paper made of the bark of trees, but now they scratch their writings on slips of flattened bamboo. Among all the indigenous tribes of Sumatra the characteristic political tendency is one that could have originated only in the recesses of the mountains. Every village affects independence, but the villages form confederations. The native tribes of Sumatra have no temples and no priests. They are said to believe in the existence of an evil spirit and of demons who haunt the mountains. On the coasts Buddhism appears to have been introduced at an early age, but it has since been completely superseded by Mohammedanism, which, among the Malays, however, is of a very relaxed char

acter.

History. The fist European who visited the island of Sumatra is said to have been Niccolo di Conti, who came there before 1449. In the beginning of the 16th century it was visited by the Portuguese, but no Europeans obtained a firm footing on the island until the Dutch established a factory on the west coast at the end of the 16th century. In 1666 the Dutch took possession of Padang, and soon after enlarged their territories by treaty with the Sultan of Achin. Since that time they have gone on continually consolidating and increasing their dominion much more by negotiation than by force of arms. Their last important accession of influence on the island was gained by a treaty with the kingdom of Siak, concluded in 1868, by which they obtained the virtual control of that state. In 1685 the British formed a settlement in Benkulen, and in 1811 they seized the Dutch possessions on the island. These were, however, restored in 1815, and in 1824 Benkulen was given over to the Dutch in exchange for Malacca. A treaty concluded between the Dutch and English governments in 1834 left the Dutch free to make what treaties they pleased with the native powers in the island of Sumatra, the same liberty being allowed to the British on the Malay Peninsula; but the right of the Dutch to make advances in the island by conquest and annexation was not then recognized. This right was, however, conceded in the treaty of February 1871, in return for the cession to the British of the Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast; and in accordance with this permission the Dutch despatched an expedition against Achin. In April 1873, the forces of the two powers came into collision, and a war ensued which dragged on for a number of years, caused severe losses to the Dutch, and terminated only in the nominal subjugation of Achin. In August 1883 the tidal wave that accompanied the terrific volcanic outburst in Krakatoa, swept with destructive effect the south coast of Sumatra, a total change in the aspect of the Straits of Sunda also resulting from the eruption. Consult Bernard, A travers Sumatra' (Paris 1910); Breitenstein, H., Sumatra' (Leipzig 1902); Cabaton, A., Java, Sumatra and the other Islands of the Dutch East Indies) (New York 1914).

SUMBAWA, soom-bä'wä, an island belonging to the Sunda group, in the Indian Ocean, east of Java, containing 5,192 square miles. The island is mountainous and of extraordinary profile. The volcano of Tomboro or Tombura, 8,940 feet high, is near the northern coast and famous for its eruptions. The island consists of two parts, with two rulers or sultans, who acknowledge the sovereignty of Holland. There are few streams. The chief products are rice, cotton, tobacco, tropical fruits and sappan-wood. Of domestic animals deer and swine are plentiful, and the finest horses of the Indian Archipelago are reared here, and exported. Edible birds' nests are found on the coasts; gold, silver, saltpetre and pearls from the mines and waters, respectively. On the north coast there is a good harbor, and here stands the town of Sumbawa. The inhabitants are Malays and Mohammedans. 75,000.

Pop.

SUMBUL, an East Indian name of the spikenard (Mardostachys), and also of the valerian, but, more particularly of Ferula sumbul, the commercial drug also known as musk-root. The last is an umbelliferous plant, with dissected leaves. The roots reach the pharmacists in transverse segments, light and spongy in texture, with a thin, brown, wrinkled and fibrous skin, but whitish inside. The taste is bitter and balsamic, the odor strong and like musk. Sumbul is used therapeutically as a stimulant and nervine, and was of importance long before its botanical history was known.

SUMERIAN LANGUAGES. The pristine, agglutinous language spoken by the earliest, prehistoric people of Mesopotamia, a region generally referred to in surviving documents as mat Shumeri u Akkadi, i.e., land of the Sumerians and Akkadians, probably the biblical Shinar or Shin'aar. It was a non-Semitic people thus dwelling in the lowlands between the Euphrates and Tigris, as comparative philology has of recent years proved beyond a doubt. True, the eminent French scientist, Joseph Halévy, in 1876, and certain of his followers, contended for the non-existence of any such early nonSemitic population. Halévy attempted to account for the early Sumerian documents in cuneiform characters by assuming a Semitic, priestly, secret style of writing, a cryptography, and cited as a parallel the Egyptian hierarchical writing. However, this has since been amply disproved. The meaning of the word Sumerian, or rather Shumerian, refers to the word "reed," "reedy" in that idiom, evidently because of the marshy, reedy landscape. The Sumerians and the Akkadians seem to have formed one people, though originally they may have come from different parts of the earth. The Sumerians, at any rate, as their tongue, an agglutinous one, shows, must have come from the north, possibly the Ural region, as there were no words or word pictures and phrases in it symbolizing fauna and flora of the subtropics.

So far as the records go, the Sumerians were the earliest nation, and their system of writing, the cuneiform, is likewise the earliest we know of. Later on, the Sumerians, by cohabitation and intermarriage, were gradually amalgamated with the later Semitic invaders, Arab tribes originally coming chiefly from the island of Bahrín. The Sumerian tongue like

wise coalesced in a manner with the Semitic idiom, the latter being superimposed on the former, much as the Norman French was superimposed on Anglo-Saxon, and thus the later Babylonian was formed. Sumerian civilization and language, however, were highly developed before the coming of the Semites, as well in the construction of the latter as in its religion, its religious observances, its legislation, arts, science and social life. The Semitic Babylonians imbibed the earlier civilization.

Nevertheless, the "Sumerian problem," socalled, had for generations perplexed Assyriologists. Oppert, in 1854, first made modest, though in a measure successful attempts to unravel its mysteries. But Prof. Paul Haupt, assisted by Profs. Peter Jensen and Zimmern, somewhat profiting by these initial labors, steadily hewed his way through these etymological brambles, and it is strikingly illustrative of the value of Haupt's pathbreaking labors that all subsequent phonetic and grammatical work in Sumerian has only tended to confirm Haupt's views in almost every instance. Haupt's "Sumerian Family Laws" and "Akkadian and Sumerian Cuneiform Texts" laid the foundation to all later researches. In the investigation of the Sumerian idiom no comparison should be made between Sumerian vocables and those of more recent agglutinous idioms, despite frequent tempting resemblances, such as in Turkish, for instance. Now and then, though, certain similarities are traceable with Esthonian and Finnish. Sumerian, as far as has been shown up to the present, must be held a language standing alone by itself, a "prehistoric philological remnant."

To Prof. Friedrich Delitzsch is due the merit of having clearly shown the full meaning, the derivation and development of Babylonian cuneiform signs. They were, then, at first pure picture writing and finally grew into conventionalized ideographic and syllabic sign lists. The etymological labor involved in this process of gradual elucidation was surrounded with enormous difficulties.

Sumerian cuneiform was adopted at least about B.C. 7000. By B.C. 5000 we see it already highly specialized, and between B.C. 4000 and 3000 we perceive it applied to the transmission of the invading Semitic language, the Babylonian; and since then the Semitic Assyrians, the Medes, the Turanian Susites, and the Caucasian Armenians have all habitually used the cuneiform.

Besides other evidence tending in the same direction, perhaps the most convincing proof, from a philological point of view, that ancient Sumerian was a real idiom, of natural growth and wholly unartificial, may be found, aside from the internal phonetic changes, in the indubitably established fact that there were two dialects of it. These were the Emeku, the man's language, the noble, virile, though harsh form, and the Emesal, the woman's language, the softer. There were no geographical boundaries to these two dialects. In R. E. Brünnow's "A Classified List of all Simple and Compound Ideographs" (1889), it is also demonstrated that the Sumerian original idiom was of unaided growth. He and others point out that there were probably eight voice tones employed in Sumerian, similar to the Chinese of

to-day, and that the intonation often determined the meaning. As a possible illustration may be cited: a water, weep, moisture, dew, tears, inundation, irrigation; ab dwelling, sea, road, and a grammatical suffix.

After Sumerian had ceased to be a living tongue it was, up to a very late period of Babylonia's existence, greatly used as a ritual one, and was read aloud at worship in the temples, much as is, for example, early Slavonic in Russian and other Orthodox churches to-day.

Bibliography.- Delitzsch, F., 'Assyrian Studies (Leipzig 1874); Assyr. Wörterbuch (Leipzig 1890); Babel und Bibel' (ib. 1899); Halévy, J., Observations critiques sur les prétendus Touraniens de la Babylonie' (Paris 1874); Journal asiatique (3d series, Vol. IV, pp. 461 seq., Paris 1874); Recherches critiques sur l'origine de la civilisation babylonienne' (id. 1876); Précis d'allographie ass.-babyl,' (ib. 1912); Haupt, M., Die sumerischen Familiengesetze (Leipzig 1879); 'Die akkadische Sprache' (Berlin 1883); Meyer, E., 'Sumerier u. Semiten in Babyl. (Berlin 1906); Lenormant, F., Etudes accadiennes) (II 2, p. 70, 3 vols., Paris 1870-79); Pinches, T. G., 'Language of the Early Inhabitants of Mesopotamia (in Journal Asiatic Society, pp. 301 seq. 1884); Sumerian or Cryptography (pp. 75 seq., 343-344, 551-552, London 1900); Prince, J. D., Journal of American Oriental Society, XXV 49-67; American Journal of Semitic Languages, XIX 203 seq.; Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon' (Leipzig 1905-07); Radan, Wm. G., Sumerian Hymns and Prayers to the God Nin-ib (London 1911); Sayce, A. H., 'Hibbert's Lectures' (pp. 415-436, 1887); Schrader, E., Keilinschriften u. Geschichtsforschung (pp. 290, 533); Tiele, C. P., Babyl.Assyr. Geschichte' (pp. 58-71, Leipzig); Zimmern, K. F., Babyl. Busspaslmen' (Leipzig 1885).

WOLF VON SCHIERBRAND, Author of America, Asia and the Pacific,' etc.

SUMMARY COURT. See LAW, MILITARY. SUMMARY PROCEEDING, in law, a form of trial in which the ancient established course of legal proceedings is disregarded, especially in the matter of trial by jury. In no case can a party be tried summarily unless when such proceedings are authorized by legislative authority, as in a committal for contempt of court, the conviction of a person by justices of the peace, etc.

SUMMER, the season of the year which in the northern hemisphere generally may be said to comprise the months of June, July and August. The astronomical summer lasts in the northern hemisphere from the June solstice to the September equinox, during which time the sun, being north of the equator, shines more directly upon this part of the earth, and rises much sooner and sets later, which renders this the hottest period of the year. The period of greatest heat generally takes place in August, since the influence of the sun's rays has then been felt for a long time on the earth, and the wind blowing from the north becomes milder owing to a moderation of the temperature in the polar circle caused by the thawing of the ice. In the southern hemisphere the summer lasts from the December solstice to the March equinox.

SUMMER DUCK. See WOOD-DUCK. SUMMER REDBIRD. See TANAGER. SUMMER SCHOOL OF THE SOUTH, a school for teachers established at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, in the summer of 1902. It was organized to supply the ever-increasing demand on the part of southern teachers for a summer school of high grade and adequate equipment for the best normal training. It receives its financial support from the General Education Board, from the University of Tennessee, from the citizens of Knox County, and from individual donations; the registration fee is small. All the buildings and full equipment of the university are given to the use of the school. The courses number over 150. The work is arranged in the following groups: (1) Common school subjects and methods, including kindergarten and primary grades; (2) psychology and pedagogy; (3) high school and college subjects; (4) rural schools and county supervision; (5) city school supervision; (6) general lectures; (7) library work and educational exhibits; (8) campaigners' conventions. Teachers have free choice of subjects, but are advised not to take work for more than three or four periods a day. The instructors and lecturers are men and women of recognized scholarship and authority, coming from various institutions and different sections of the country. The school has a large attendance and has proved a marked success.

SUMMER SESSIONS. The summer school responds to a specific need. Professional people such as teachers, ministers, doctors and also other workers like social workers, Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A. secretaries and even business men and women, find the summer vacation period a suitable time to undertake advanced educational work in specially selected subjects. The other seasons of the year are devoted to exhaustive labors; the summer study is both recreative and inspirational and may be made to contribute to professional advancement. When systematically planned and extended over a period of years, such summer work may even have recognition in the form of academic credit or academic degrees.

Of the persons listed above teachers in service make the most insistent demand for summer courses. New methods and new educational movements continually call for special short courses. For example, the Montessori method, or the Direct Method in Latin, may be studied to advantage in this way. Teachers may add to their regular accomplishments certain special, perhaps new, activities, such as domestic science and art, various phases of handwork, craftswork, physical education, elocution, etc. Again, a famous teacher from a foreign land may offer courses during a summer session, affording attractive opportunity for special investigation, or for getting a particular method or a particular form of interpretation in a known field. It is a growing practice among municipal school authorities to offer special inducement to public school teachers to take summer courses. The elementary teacher more particularly, but the high school teacher also to some extent is tempted to stagnate. After teaching the same subject several years, the dull monotony of the process deadens

the ambition. This is especially true where knowledge of method is more important than knowledge of subject matter as in the elementary school. The opportunity for summer study is especially inspiring in such cases.

Physicians also find it desirable to investigate new treatments, to observe and learn new methods in surgery, to get a new point of view in the profession. The summer session or clinic may give the desired opportunity. Even the farmer demands special opportunities for the observation of special methods and practices and looks to a short session of the Agricultural College to supply his needs. In this case, however, the winter may offer greater advantages.

Recently efficiency experts have advocated the continuous use of educational plants. The idle recitation halls, laboratories and libraries are considered uneconomical. This idleness may continue from 15 June to 15 September, 25 per cent of the educational year. Apparently this records only 75 per cent efficiency for faculties, plants and investments. For the faculty the inefficiency is only apparent since the fallow months are essential to the later increase in fertility and resourcefulness. Of the plant, however, and of the invested funds, the charge of inefficiency is partly true. If a separate faculty can be provided to use the equipment during the summer, a faculty that has its fallow months at another season of the year, then an all year program becomes efficient.

The Four-Term Year.-A continuous session plan was devised at Chicago University by President William Rainey Harper, when that institution was first opened in 1892. It provides (1) four terms of twelve weeks each; (2) twelve terms completed work are required for graduation; (3) that a student may complete twelve terms in three years; (4) that a student may select any three terms as a year's work, devoting the other term to rest or business; (5) that a member of the faculty may elect to be absent from college duties during any one term of any calendar year.

This plan accomplishes all that summer sessions usually seek to do and much more. (1) It incorporates the summer session as an integral part of the academic year. The summer term differs in no essential respect from any of the other terms. (2) Students may begin their college or university courses four times each year. (3) The university equipment is in continual use. (4) The university can use the best men from other institutions in this country and even from foreign universities.

The continuous session plan or the fourterm year is the logical development of the summer school movement. Its sponsor, Chicago University, has used it continuously from 1892 to 1918. A quarter of a century has tested the plan thoroughly and has justified it. That few other colleges and universities have adopted it is no argument against it. It seems probable that acquaintance with its features and its satisfactory results will gradually lead to a wide if not universal use of it.

History of Summer Schools. The Concord School of Philosophy was proposed by Ralph Waldo Emerson as early as 1840 and came to full fruition between 1879-85. The Haryard Summer School has lived from 1869