any German power during her war with Holland. In consequence of this treaty the Swedes invaded Brandenburg in 1674. They were defeated by the elector at Fehrlallin, 28 June 1675. After this victory Denmark entered into a league with the elector against Sweden. In the hotly contested war which ensued Sweden was defeated by the elector on land and by the Danes at sea, but her ally was victorious, and Louis XIV compelled the elector by the treaty of Saint Germain-en-Laye to restore to Sweden all her German possessions except a district beyond the Oder, and by the treaty of Fontainebleau Christian V engaged to restore all his conquests to Sweden. Peace was concluded on these terms between Sweden and Denmark at London, 26 Sept. 1679.

Sweden, whose financial resources were always limited, had, however, been impoverished by the war, and the nobility, who during the minority of Charles had acquired the chief power in the state, although the king had assumed the government in 1672, became unpopular. A revolution was accomplished in 1680, in which the states, under the guardianship of a military force, declared Charles absolute and irresponsible, and entitled to dispose of the government by his last will. The remaining years of Charles XI were employed in organizing the army and restoring the finances. He adopted a regular system of conscription, which greatly strengthened the military power of the nation. He died 15 April 1697. His son, Charles XII, born in 1682, was declared of age in November. His youth induced Denmark, Poland and Russia to enter into a league against him to partition his dominions. Embarking for Copenhagen in 1700, he soon disconcerted the plans of the allies, and refusing peace began a career of conquest, which after many marvelous successes ended in the disastrous battle of Poltava, 8 July 1709. After an exile in Turkey he returned to Sweden in 1714, reconciled himself with Peter the Great, and was pushing the conquest of Norway when he was killed at the siege of Fredcrickshall, 30 Nov. 1718. The Swedish states passing over Charles Frederick, son of Charles' elder sister, named the second sister of Charles, Ulrica Eleonora, queen, who in 1720 associated with her husband Frederick I. The revolution was accomplished so suddenly that it led to a suspicion that Charles' death had been anticipated, and it has always been suspected that he fell by the hand of an assassin. The new govcrnment allied itself with Great Britain, and ceded the duchies of Bremen and Verden, the cause of quarrel between Charles and England, to George I. Peace was concluded with Poland on the basis of the treaty of Oliva, and with Prussia, to which Sweden ceded the territory between the Oder and the Peene, Stettin, the islands of Wollin and Usedom, etc. By the Treaty of Stockholm, 12 June 1720, Sweden paid Denmark 600,000 rix-dollars, and renounced the freedom of the Sound, while Denmark restored Rügen and other conquests in Pomerania and elsewhere. War still continued between Sweden and Russia. It was concluded by the Treaty of Nystadt, 10 Sept. 1721. Sweden received $2,000,000 for Livonia, but she finally lost the valuable Baltic provinces for which she

had so long contended. Of her conquests Russia only restored Finland.

Sweden was now under the hands of an oli garchy. This council was easily bribed by foreign powers. It was divided into two factions, called (after 1738) the Hats and Caps, the former of which preferred to sell themselves to France, the latter to Russia. On the breaking out of the war of the Austrian Succession, the Swedes, who had been irritated by the murder, at the instigation of the Russian Empress Anna, of their Ambassador to the Porte, were easily induced by France to declare war with Russia. The war on the part of Sweden, from military incapacity and the selfishness of her civil rulers, was ill conducted. On the accession of Elizabeth peace was concluded by the Treaty of Abo, 17-18 Aug. 1743, by which Sweden renounced forever her claim to the provinces ceded by the Treaty of Nystadt, the recovery of which was the main object of the war, and ceded part of Finland, the boundary between the two states being fixed at the river Kymené. By the influence of Russia Adolphus Frederick of Holstein was elected successor to the Swedish crown, to which he succeeded on the death of Frederick in 1751. During this reign Sweden took some part in the Seven Years' War. At home the country was distracted by the rivalries of the Hats and Caps, and the royal power sank to a shadow. Adolphus died in 1771 and was succeeded by his son Gustavus III. His reign was distinguished by a monarchical revolution. He undertook a war against Russia, which brought him fame indeed, but was productive of no other result. Gustavus was assassinated in 1792. In 1809 his son Gustavus IV was deposed, and his family declared forever incapable of succeeding to the crown. (The leading events of his reign will be found under GUSTAVUS IV). His uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, was declared king with the title of Charles XIII. He concluded a war with Russia, begun by Gustavus, by the Treaty of Fredericksham, 17 Sept. 1809, by which Sweden surrendered Finland, the Aland Isles and part of West Bothnia to Russia. In 1810 the states elected Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, crown-prince. In the final struggle with Napoleon previous to 1814 Sweden joined the Allies, while Denmark took the part of France. The Danes were driven out of Holstein by Bernadotte, and the Treaty of Kiel was concluded between Sweden, Denmark and Great Britain, 14 Jan. 1814. Sweden by this treaty ceded to Denmark her last German possessions in Pomerania, and the Isle of Rügen, while Denmark was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden as a compensation for the loss of Finland. The cession was confirmed by the Norwegian Storthing on 4 November. Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland, which had belonged to Norway, were retained by Denmark. Sweden now held the whole Scandinavian Peninsula, and had lost all her other European possessions. Bernadotte succeeded to the crown in 1818, under the title of Charles XIV. Under his reign Sweden advanced greatly in agricultural and mercantile prosperity. He died in 1844, and was succeeded by his son Oscar I, who introduced extensve reforms in the government. (See OSCAR 1). He died 8 July 1859, and was succeeded by his son, Charles Louis Eugene, under the title of

en

the

Swedish writers to the American public, characterizes the Swedish language as soft and musical with an accent like the Lowland Scotch. Jacob Grimm considered it even the most musical of all Germanic languages, comparable to Italian among the Romance languages. This musical character of Swedish is partly explained from the fact that it has retained full endings like -a and -o in many positions where the other Germanic languages have substituted -e or dropped them tirely. More important, however, are peculiar laws of pitch and modulation which hardly any other language has developed with such consistency. Certain combinations of stress and tone result in definite forms of a musical cadence of "tonlag." The simple tonlag, or acute accent, differs very little from that employed in other languages, the compound tonlag occurs only in Norwegian and Swedish: the voice first sinks about two tones and rises suddenly two or three tones on the second syllable with a weak secondary stress. The question of accent and modulation is one of the chief difficulties in the study of Swedish.

Bibliography. For history of the language: Noreen, A. G., De nordiska språken' (Upsala 1887). By the same scholar the authoritative grammar, Vårt språk' (Stockholm 1903 et seq.). A shorter grammar in Swedish is by Sunden, D. A., 'Svensk språklära' (Stockholm 1885). For pronunciation and accent consult Storm's article Om Tonelaget i de skandinaviske Sprog' (Christiania 1847). Also Sweet's treatment in the Transactions of the Philological Society (London 1877). Two practical grammars for American students are Vixner, Ě. J., A Brief Swedish Grammar) (Rock Island, Ill., 1914) and Elmquist, A. L., Elementary Swedish Grammar (Chicago 1914). The official dictionary of the Swedish Academy is still in progress, Ordbok öfver, svenska språket' (Lund 1893 et seq.). For dialects consult Rietz, J. E., Svensk Dialectlexikon' (Malmö 1867). For etymology Tamm, F., 'Etymologisk svensk ordbok' (Stockholm 1890). For American readers Björkman, 'Swedish-English Dictionary) (Stockholm 1889) and Wendström and Lindgren, EnglishSwedish Dictionary) (Stockholm 1889).

EWALD A. BOUCKE,

German Department, University of Michigan.

as

SWEDISH LITERATURE. The intellectual life of the North has been at all times more or less dependent on central Europe, especially on German and French civilization. Swedish literature shows these influences in a marked degree and has only within the last generation produced writers of distinct originality and more than national significance. The mediæval period appears rather meagre compared with those of Norway and Iceland. Codes of laws, chronicles, legends of saints, adaptations of chivalrous romances and didactic writings: these or similar categories cover a literary activity which is altogether imitative and chiefly of philological interest. Among the historical documents may be mentioned the Erics-chronicle, covering the period from 12301320, the New Chronicle (1490) and the socalled Small Rhymechronicle which contains some interesting autobiographies of Swedish kings. The most conspicuous religious char

acter of the later Middle Ages was Saint Birgitta who, after an extended experience as wife and mother, turned her mind to things spiritual, undertook reforms of all kinds, founded a religious order, came in touch with the leaders of German mysticism and died 1373 in Rome. She contributed to Swedish literature a volume of visions or "revelations" which in spite of their abstruseness exhibit a remarkable power of imagination. Her personal influence and the activity of the Birgitta order which was centred in Vadstena, can be traced through the whole intellectual life of the North, especially in the direction of building up a national church and encouraging the use of the mother tongue. The ballad literature of the 14th and 15th centuries is not as extensive as that of Denmark or Germany, but corresponds otherwise in subject and form. Many of these lays and ballads wandered evidently from one country to the other and exist in numerous versions. More than 60 have been counted of the famous ballad 'Elveskud' (translated by Herder as 'Erlkings Daughters') which describes the dangerous lure of dancing elves The Swedish ballads have been collected by Geijer and Afzelius as 'Svenska folkvisor' (new edition by Bergström, 1880).

Swedish thought and literature received a powerful stimulus from the gradual adoption of the Lutheran faith in the course of the 16th century. This movement is closely associated with the names of the brothers Petri, Olavus and Laurentius, and of Laurentius Andreae. All three of them contributed to the translation of the Bible which appeared complete in Upsala in the year 1541 and which for the history of the literary language in Sweden may claim a similar position as Luther's translation for German. Apart from a rich controversial literature called forth by the religious movement, we meet with attempts in the dramatic field, such as treatment of biblical stories, alle gories and school comedies. The most versatile writer of this period is Johan Messenius who, among other things, planned a systematic dramatization of subjects taken from Swedish history but who only completed six of such plays.

The heroic century of Modern Sweden, the age of Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII, proved to be relatively unproductive in the field of literature. The dominant influence of Renaissance poetics throughout the 17th century discouraged spontaneous expression and established in most European countries classicistic standards and a rule of formalism. Sweden reveres her "father of literature" in Georg Stjernhjelm (1598-1672), a stern disciplinarian who aimed at purity of language and formal perfection. He wrote a number of epic and didactic poems of an allegorical character, among them his famous 'Hercules at the Crossroad and distinguished himself besides as a scholar and scientist in many fields. He introduced a number of classic and romantic metres into Swedish poetry and handled them with remarkable skill. His contemporary Gunnar Dahlstjerna employed even the Ottave rime (with six iambic feet) in his patriotic poem 'Kungaskald,' and is still appreciated as the author of 'Götha Kämpevisa' in which Charles XII and Peter the Tsar are the leading

our

characters. The greatest metrical genius of his age was Johan Runius (d. 1713), while the Finlander Jacob Frese shows more natural poetic talent. Samuel Columbus and Jesper Svedberg contributed some of the most popular Swedish hymns. The anatomist and botanist Olaf Rudbeck (1630-1702) still arouses smile as the author of the treatise 'Atlantika' in which he tried to prove that Plato's Atlantis was identical with Sweden and that here or nowhere else must have stood the cradle of civilization. Rudbeck_taught at Upsala which under the reign of Queen Christine had become a great centre of learning and attracted temporarily scholars from all parts of Europe, even men like Descartes, Hugo Grotius and others.

The literary sceptre of Stjernhjelm as dictator in the republic of letters passed later into the hands of Olof von Dalin (1708-63) who in his literary style and ambitions might be compared with the English rationalist Pope. He began his career by editing a periodical The Swedish Argus which was modeled after Addison's Spectator, and developed later into an excellent prose writer and brilliant satirist. His 'Saga om Hästen' ("tale of the horse") is still enjoyable as a specimen of rationalistic wit and allegory. While Dalin leaned at first on English models, the literary taste of the age continued on the whole to be French, first in the manner of Voltaire as in the case of the "dioscuri" Creutz and Gyllenborg, or of Kellgren and Leopold, later in the manner of Rousseau whose theories were introduced into Sweden by Thomas Thorild. Among the literary productions of this school deserve special mentioning Creutz' 'Atis and Camilla,' a charming idyl in the style of Gessner, Kellgren's Nya Skapesen' (the new creation), and Wallenberg's novel 'Min Son på Galejen (my son on the galley), a great favorite to this day on account of its splendid humor. King Gustavus III (1771-92), nephew of Frederick the Great and one of the most gifted rulers of his age, did not only further the arts and sciences in the most generous way, but wrote several patriotic plays of considerable merit. Among Gustavus' immediate friends who attained temporary fame are Count Ehrensvärd, Count Oxenstjerna, Bengt Lidner, the poet of sentiment and passion, G. Adlerbeth, author of 'Ingjald Illråda,' the most famous Swedish tragedy of this age. The revolutionary pathos of Thomas Thorild inaugurates the emotionalism in Sweden which worshipped at the shine of Rousseau, Klopstock_and Össian. Before entering upon this new phase a word ought to be said about the most unique lyric poet of this century who is still dear to the hearts of his countrymen: Karl M. Bellman (1740-95). He belongs with Robert Burns, or the French vagabond Villon to the class of literary bohemians who seem to be entirely free from the shackles of school or convention, who appeal to us more like voices of nature or immediate transcripts of the life around them. Bellman's best-known poems, among them those dramatic sketches of tavern life, are contained in the collection: Fredman's epistles. They seem more like free improvisations than finished works of art, but it is this wonderful freshness and bold impressionistic

new

manner which fascinates the modern reader as much as their original audience.

The

The transition from the older 18th century formalism to the Romantic age in Sweden presents quite a dramatic spectacle. The first writers who showed a more adventurous spirit, were Franzén and Wallin, the latter still known as the editor of the Swedish psalm-book and as the author of a glowing ode addressed to George Washington. After the revolution of 1809 the Swedish Academy ceased to be arbiter of public taste, and soon the leading writers of the Romantic movement in Germany were eagerly studied and imitated. Two parties formed and carried on a lively feud for a number of years: the Phosphorists, so called after their periodical Phosphorus,' were more interested in the speculative elements of German mysticism, as represented by Schelling or Novalis, the Gothicists wished to strengthen national ideals and to revive the old sagas and ballads of the romantic Middle Ages. head of the first group was Peter Atterbom (died in 1855), whose phosphorescent visions recall somewhat the ethereal, transcendent style of Shelley or Keats. Other members were Nyberg, Dahlgren and Stagnelius, a mystic and seer, reminding of Blake. leading minds of the Gothicists were Erik Geijer, equally great as poet and historian, Per Ling who tried to revive the old saga style, and his much greater follower Esaias Tegnér, author of the Frithjofs Saga, Sweden's national epic. Somewhat independent of either school remained Karl Nicander who selected chiefly Italian subjects and themes for his poetry, Chr. Fahlcrantz, still quoted as a humorist, and Johan L. Almquist (1793-1866), an erratic genius who combined exquisite delicacy of sentiment (as in his collection of lyrics: Törnrosens bok) with an extravagant, even lawless imagination and quite heterodox views on love and marriage.

The

The chief by-product of the Romantic movement, the historical novel, flourished in Sweden perhaps even better than in England or Germany. Gumälius, Crusenstolpe, Ridderstad, Sparre and many others have contributed to this genre. The Finlander Topelius' so called (Surgeon's Stories' which cover nearly two centuries of Swedish history, were widely read in this country at one time, but slumber now peacefully on the shelves of our libraries side by side with Rydberg's famous novel 'The Last Athenian,' and with Frederika Bremer's once so popular stories and sketches of Swedish home life. The last-named writer appears already quite emancipated from Romantic doctrines and points toward the coming age of Realism. Swedish literature, as may have been noticed, is immensely rich in the field of lyric poetry, whereas the realistic novel of the Dickens or Eliot type is rather poorly represented. Fr. Cederborgh, Karl Wetterberg, August Blanche, Sofie von Knorring and a few others present various aspects of Swedish life and society in their novels. The realistic note which had already been heard in the poems of Anna Lenngren (died 1817), becomes more and more prominent, and is reinforced by humor and satire in the songs of W. von Braun, Wennerberg, Sturzenbecker, and the witty improvisations of Johan Wadman. But all these

minor talents disappear by the side of the greatest poetic realist of his age: Johan L. Runeberg, the pride of Finland. His chief work is a collection of patriotic poems and ballads: Ensign Ståls Tales,' which were inspired by the second Finnish War in 1809, and are rightly considered the most beautiful tribute that has ever been paid, to the patriotic enthusiasm of a small nation. The idyls 'Elkhunters' and 'Hanna' show the influence of Goethe's epic style and, with a large number of exquisite lyrics, give evidence of Runeberg's remarkable power to invest the simplest and most primitive aspects of life with genuine pathos and poetic dignity. He deserves to be classed in this respect with poets of the rank of Goethe or Wordsworth. Runeberg taught for many years in Borga, Finland, and died in 1877.

Two years after Runeberg's death, in 1879, there appeared a novel in Sweden under the title The Red Room' by August Strindberg, which inaugurated a new type of Realism and a new literary era. A few years later Geijerstam attempted in his first novel 'Erik Grane' to epitomize the great intellectual and social revolution which had gradually spread from one country to the other and was inspired by three constructive ideals: a political and social democracy, a reconciliation of science and religion, and a new æsthetic creed which subordinated beauty to truth. The commanding figure in this movement is August Strindberg, epochmaking in all fields of literature and at all times a seeker of truth. Most of 's writings are now accessible in English translations. Gustav af Geijerstam (18581909) who as a novelist has gained great popularity both in Sweden and Germany, is practically unknown to the American reader. This may be explained from the distinctly national or even provincial character of his art, partly from the peculiar inwardness and subtlety of his analysis which avoids striking plots or situations and instead delves down into the deeper strata and hidden recesses of soul life. However, such stories as 'Astray in Life,' 'Pastor Hallin,' or some of his short stories deserve to be translated and might appeal more than some of Strindberg's rather morbid productions. Among the younger followers of the new realism may be mentioned Albert Engström, editor of the periodical 'Strix' and known through his descriptions of peasant life, sailors and fishermen. Two Swedish American novels may be added, one by Hilma Angered-Strandberg, called 'The New World' describing the struggle and failure of two people who have come to this country, the other by Henning Berger, 'Isail' which contains a splendid description of Chicago as the great melting pot of races. The influence of Maupassant and Flaubert is noticeable in Hjalmar Söderberg's clever sketches of Stockholm society ('Historietten' and 'Blunders'), as well as in his novel Martin Birk's Youth,' a story of disillusioned youth. Sigerid Siwertz, a short story writer, seems to develop in a similar direction, as f. i., in his collection 'The New Robinson.'

Since 1890 the pendulum seems to have swung back in the opposite direction of an idealistic or neoromantic interpretation of life.

Such is the literary creed of Selma Lagerlöf, the leading writer of the day, whose wondrous tales from Gösta Berling to the 'Emperor of Portugallia' are being read in many languages. Her art certainly bears out Walter Pater's definition of the romantic as 'strangeness added to beauty.' Far less known is Verner von Heidenstam, author of the 'Karolinerna,' a series of tales grouped around the heroic figure of Charles XII. This book has already become a classic. Oscar Levertin (died in 1906) may be regarded as the leading critic and essayist of this school. His earlier lyrics, like those of Heidenstam's, reveal a dreamy brood ing mysticism and great delicacy of feeling. Even more elusive are Ola Hansson's interpretations of nature and soul-life in his 'Sensitiva amorosa' and 'Young Ofeg's Ditties' (transl. by G. Egerton). Per Hallström has attracted attention as a stylist of pronounced individuality and a lover of southern beauty in a number of delicately chiseled stories and sketches. His prose writings correspond somewhat to the lyrical poetry of Count Snoilsky (died 1903), which is distinguished by great formal beauty and its rich cultural suggestiveness. Quite an opposite type, though equally great in his way, is Gustaf Fröding (died 1911), who renewed the impressionism of Bellman and his model Robert Burns but covers a wider range of experience. He is an enthusiastic worshipper of life tempered by an element of irony and even cynicism. (Guitar and Accordion' 1891). The youngest generation is represented by the Finlander Gripenberg, the naturalists Bååth and Bo Bergman, and Sigmund Agrell, a follower of Hallström. Present day novelists are Sven Lidman (the life of Swedish nobility), Gustaf Janson (cosmopolitan and visionary), Mathilde Roos (conservative). A group of writers make Norrland, the country of sawmills, the background of their novels, like Erik Forsslund in 'Storgården,' Martin Koch, Olaf Högberg, L. Nordström. The drama, at all times strangely unproductive in Sweden, has little to show, since the days of Strindberg, but temporary successes like Hallström's charming Venetian Comedy,' Harold Morlander's 'Rococo' and Söderberg's Gertrud' (1906). The most promising dramatist of the day is Ernst Didring.

Of

Bibliography.-The best anthology is the 'Läsebok i svensk litteratur' by Hildebrand, Bergstadt and Bendixson (Stockholm 1897). older histories of literature may be mentioned Malmström, Grunddragen af svenska vitterhetens historia, Oerebro 1866-69. The best modern book is the 'Illustrerad svensk litteraturhistoria by Schück and Warburg (2d ed., 1912-16). The only English treatment of Swedish literature, but extending only to 1880, is to be found in Horn's History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North' (translated by Rasmus Anderson, Chicago 1884). It contains valuable and quite extensive bibliographical material, especially in the field of English translations. Very few articles have appeared in Americau magazines within the last 20 years, one by Har boe, Silhouettes of some Swedish writers, in the Bookman (October 1906); another by Stork on Gustaf Fröding (in the North American, Vol 204). G. Brandes has written short essays on a number of modern Swedish writers which are