driven down on the wings of the wind to the valley below. The Schlag-Lawine or StrokeAvalanche is the usual spring variety, which pour down the slopes like a swiftly-flowing river. This is the type that can be more successfully regulated. It has a secondary form in the Grund-Lawine or ground avalanche, which carries earth and rubbish with it and performs a beneficial task in bringing down soil from the heights to the plains. Whereas the avalanche is snow in quick movement toward the valleys, the glacier is snow (pressed into ice) in slow movement. See GLACIAL PERIOD; GLACIER,

Rivers and Lakes.- Owing to its mountainous nature Switzerland is naturally a land belonging to many river systems, though none of the rivers acquires such a size within its limits as to become of much navigable importance. Its position as the centre of the principal watersheds of Europe has been referred to. Great rivers take their origin in Switzerland and attain their chief development in other countries. Both the Rhine and the Rhone rise here, as well as the Po and the Danube. The first three spring from the Saint Gothard mountain mass, but the Rhine is formed by the junction of three distinct head-streams, the Vorder, Mittel and Hinter-Rhine. It flows north into the Lake of Constance, and thence west to Schauffhausen, where it forms the celebrated falls of that name, the largest in Europe in volume. It is navigable for vessels at Coire in the canton of Grisons for vessels of 150 tons, but its navigation properly begins below the falls. Its principal affluent in Switzerland is the Aar, which, after traversing the Lakes of Brienz and Thun, winds across the Swiss plateau to join the main stream about midway between Lake Constance and Basel. The Rhone, said to be the most rapid of the larger rivers of the world, rises in the Rhone glacier (Valais), flows northwest into the Lake of Geneva, issues thence at the town of Geneva under the name of the Arve, and quits Swiss territory about 10 miles below. The waters which the Po receives from Switzerland are carried to it by the Ticino, and thereby to the eastern bay of the Mediterranean; those which the Danube receives are carried to it by the Inn and taken thence on to the Black Sea. The lakes and mountains form a more important hydrographical feature than the rivers. The former are remarkable for their number, size, depth and the grandeur of their scenery. The largest lake, that of Geneva (also known as Lake Leman), has an area of about 220 square miles; Lake Constance, in the northeast, has 208 square miles. Both of these, as well as Maggiore on the south side of the Alps, belong partly to other countries; but within the limits of Switzerland, and not far from its centre, are Lake Neuchâtel (93 square miles), with Morat and Bienne in its vicinity. Thun with its feeder Brienz, Lucerne or Vierwaldstättersee, Sempach, Baldegg, Zug, Zürich and Wallenstättersee. All these internal lakes belong to the basin of the Rhine. The greatest depth of Lake Geneva is 1,015 feet, placing the bottom at about 200' feet above sealevel; the bottoms of the lakes on the southern side of the Alps are below the level of the sea. Rapid mountain torrents feed nearly all the

Swiss lakes, entering their upper ends thickly charged with sediment, which is deposited when the rivers enter the lake, to leave it at the lower end as clear streams. Thus the lakes filter and regulate the rivers, thereby protecting nearly all the lower valleys of the country from serious floods. The Aar formerly overflowed its banks, but this has been remedied by the construction of a canal to divert the river into the Lake of Bienne, by which the lower course of the stream is regulated.

Geology and Minerals.- The most remarkable feature in the complicated geological structure of Switzerland and of the Alps generally is the extent to which the flanks of the Alps have been folded, contorted and inverted by the tremendous forces that led to the elevation of these mountains. A typical example is presented by the Saint Gothard, where the central core crops out at the summit of the ridge, and the strata on each side of it, north and south, dip inwards toward the base, so that when seen in section they would present the appearance of the ribs of a fan radiating from a single point. All the loftiest Alpine ranges have a nucleus of granite, on which gneiss and mica-slate recline generally at a high angle. On the west of the plateau the Jura give their name (Jurassic) to the rocks of which they are composed; the mountains on the east are mainly formed of gneiss and mica-schist with various slates in places, especially in the Grisons. The Swiss plateau, stretching from southwest to northeast between the Geneva and Constance lakes, may be described as an area of Tertiary (principally Miocene) deposits separating the two mountain regions composed chiefly of rocks of more ancient date. Switzerland is not rich in minerals; iron ore is found and worked at various places. Asphalt, sulphur and salt occur in certain districts, and formerly argentiferous copper and lead ore were extracted in the canton of Grisons. A profitable source of national wealth is provided by an abundance of mineral springs. Thermal and medicinal baths are dotted all over the country. Baden (q.v.), the chief of the bath centres, enjoys a most salubrious climate and its hot springs have been celebrated since Roman times. Other celebrated health resorts are those of Schinznach in Aargau, Pfeffers in Saint Gall, Leuk or Louèche and Saxon in Valais, Saint Moritz in the beautiful Engadine, with Bernhardin, Fideris and Schuls-Tarasp, Alveneu and Serneus; Blumenstein, Weissenburg and others in canton Berne; Weissbad near Appenzell, Stachelberg in Glarus, Seewen in Schwyz, and Schwendi-Kaltbad in Unterwalden. Altogether there are close on 400 health resorts in Switzerland, many containing luxurious hotels, Kurhäuser, casinos, clubs and theatres, with numerous attractions for devotees of winter sports and tennis lawns. Native industry and initiative have so successfully exploited the gifts of nature that Switzerland has become the "playground of Europe" - if not of the world.

Climate. The crest of the Alps forms a huge dividing-wall between the polar and the equatorial winds, the latter of which frequently deposit their moisture in the form of rainfall on the southern side of the range. The bestknown wind is the Föhn, a warm, moist south wind that blows with great velocity in eastern

Switzerland and the upper valleys of the Rhine, Reuss, Rhone and Linth, and is frequently followed by heavy rain. On its approach the thermometer rises and the barometer falls rapidly; presently a fierce storm breaks out. The Föhn is calculated to blow for 17 days in spring, five days in summer and 16 days in autumn. The cold north-northeast wind, known by the French name of bise, blows in the direction of Geneva between the Bernese Oberland the Jura, but is little noticeable in summer. Various local winds prevail at the higher levels and are of great importance to invalids, e.g., the uniform morning wind, blowing down-hill, in regular alternation with the evening wind, blowing up-hill. The higher inhabited regions of Switzerland may be divided into three zones. The lowest of these, the hill region, between the elevations of 1,300 and 2,600 feet above sealevel, embraces the banks of the lakes in northeast and central Switzerland and the adjacent mountain slopes. Great heat often prevails here in summer, though a pleasant relief is afforded by the lake baths. Lake Constance is the warmest of the inland waters, with a temperature of 68° to 75° F. The second, or mountain region, extends from 2,600 to 3,900 feet, a district of numerous towns and villages. The third, or Alpine region (3,900 to 6,550 feet), presents a much lower temperature and dry, clear weather suitable for certain classes of invalids suffering from lung disease. At Sils-Maria, in the upper part of the Engadine valley, the mean January temperature is 172° F.; mean July, 53°, and the mean of the whole year 34°. In general the valleys have a severer winter than mountain peaks of equal elevation, as the colder and, therefore, heavier air steadily sinks down to the bottom of the hollows. places north of the Alps, such as Zürich and Berne, the normal winter temperature is about 30° F., the summer temperature from 50° to 64° or upwards; at Geneva the corresponding temperatures are as high as 33° and 66°. Some of the high-lying valleys, especially those that are open to the east and closed to the west, are facetiously said to have nine months' winter and three months' cold.

At

Flora and Fauna.- The differences of elevation affect equally the climate and the natural productions of the soil, hence few countries in Europe, even of larger extent, can boast of a more varied vegetation than Switzerland. The flora of the Alps is one of peculiar interest. Like all great mountain ranges the Alps harbor a considerable number of plants found nowhere else, and of those which are found elsewhere the majority do not reappear in the plains and valleys below, but in distant mountains or in the Arctic regions. Out of upwards of 800 species belonging to the Alps, but not to the adjoining lowlands, nearly one-fourth are absolutely restricted to these mountains, and nearly a fifth are found also in the Arctic regions, these being what are hence known as Arctic-Alpine plants. As the elevation ascends there is a gradual change in the aspect of the vegetation, which has been divided into seven regions. In comparison with adjacent countries, Switzerland possesses few forests, and these have little effect in increasing the atmospheric moisture or in moderating the extremes of temperature. In the valleys at the base of the moun

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tains chestnut and walnut grow freely even on the north side, while in the valleys opening toward the Mediterranean lies a zone occupied by these trees while still at a considerable elevation. Higher up is the zone of the beech, maple and other ordinary foliage trees reaching to about 4,000 feet, and then the zone of firs and pines rising about 1,000 feet higher. This region is followed by one of Alpine shrubs, among which rhododendrons ("Alpine roses"), heaths and whortleberries are conspicuous, along with larches and two species of pine, the dwarf-pine and the cembra-pine, remarkable for its edible seeds and peculiar to this zone. The shrubs cease to grow at about the height of 7,000 feet, but the Alpine plants that cover the pastures intermingled with the shrubs ascend to the snow line, and even beyond in places too steep for snow to lie. Heer collected about 100 different species of flowering plants above the snow limits on the peaks of the Grisons at about 8,500 feet; 24 species have been observed on the Grands Mulets on Mont Blanc at a height of from 9,800 to 10,600 feet; and the sides of the Pizzo Centrale on the Saint Gothard have been known in August to spread to a considerable distance the fragrance of the flowers which covered them in patches. The celebrated edelweiss, which all Alpine tourists eagerly collect, is the most retiring of these snow region plants. Of utility plants the characteristic product of the plain and lower regions is the vine, which grows up to about 1,800 feet above sea-level. The hilly or lower mountain region up to 4,000 feet produces good crops of barley and oats and excellent pastures. Above this, in the Sub-Alpine region, up to 5,500 feet, no regular crops are grown; in the upper Alpine region the vegetation becomes more stunted and the variation of the seasons is lost. Beyond lies perpetual snow. Many parts even of the lower parts of the country are stony and sterile, but no spot that can be turned to good account is left unoccupied. Though chiefly an agricultural country, Switzerland cannot grow enough crops to support its population, so that the majority of the foodstuffs have to be imported. The productive land is cut up among some 300,000 peasant proprietors who raise, besides the crops already mentioned, wheat, spelt, rye, potatoes and tobacco, and manufacture cheese, condensed milk and wine. Nearly 30 per cent of the entire area is unproductive and about 36 per cent is under grass and meadows. Considerable quantities of fruits are grown. Among domestic animals the first place belongs to the horned cattle. At the last census there were in the country 136,613 horses, 1,615,645 cattle, 171,635 sheep, 550,000 pigs and 358,000 goats. In the summer the cattle are fed on the numerous mountain pastures or "alps," but of their winter fodder a large proportion has to be imported. In several cantons bee-keeping and silkworm culture are carried Among the wild animals are bears, wolves, chamois, goats, boars, stags, badgers, foxes, hares, otters, squirrels; birds of prey of large dimensions; the snipe, heathcock, cuckoo, blackbird and woodpecker. The lakes and rivers produce a varied abundance of fish.

on.

People. The Swiss are a mixed people as to race and language. The bulk of the popula tion is of Teutonic race, but the Latin race

(partly French, partly Italian) compose nearly three-sevenths of the whole. The Swiss Teutons belong to the Alemannic stock and still speak a difficult Alemannic dialect usually called Swiss German or simply Swiss. They occupy the whole of the upper Rhine valley, as far as its extreme western angle at Basel, consequently the whole of the Helvetian highlands lying north of the Central Alps, besides the upper Rhone valley down to Sion or Sitten, under the Bernese Alps. The rest of the upper Rhone valley and the western slopes of the Jura are French, comprising the cantons of Valais, Vaud, Geneva and Neuchâtel. The Italian portion is made up of those parts which belong to the basin of the Po-the whole of the canton of Ticino and the valley of Poschiavo in the Grisons. Along the head streams of the Rhine, in the valleys of the Grisons, and in the region between these rivers and the banks of the upper Inn, and even still farther castwards, in some Tyrolese valleys beyond the Swiss frontier, are scattered the Rumonshspeaking people, whose language at first sight seems like a sort of connecting link between German and Italian. These are the interesting Rhaeto-Romance tribes, which had long failed to receive the attention of the scientific world. Critical research has since established that Rumonsh is an entirely independent Neo-Latin tongue, standing on the same level as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Langue d'Oc, Moldo-Wallachian (Rumanian) and Langue d'Oil. Rumonsh has two main dialects the Overland dialect or Rumonsh proper, divided into two sub-dialects, the Sur-Selvian and Sub-Selvian, and the Engadine or Ladin dialect (see RHETIA). Yielding to the pressure of the vigorous Teutonic tribes, the Rhæto-Romance races became at last confined to the solitary upland valleys, where they still continue to eke out a laborious existence. Their speech is also steadily yielding to encroachments and is gradually being supplanted either by German or Italian. As the Swiss races differ in origin and language, so also do their temperamental characteristics vary. The French Swiss is active and vivacious; the Italian Swiss, fiery and irritable; the German Swiss, calm and thoughtful. Yet with all their racial and spiritual divergences, a fervent patriotism is common to all of the Swiss people. Independence and liberty are the keynotes of their existence. There is no desire among the German, French or Italian Swiss to be united with their neighbors of corresponding nationalities. It has been said that the Swiss as a people often suffer in the judgment of tourists by failure to live up to their reputation as a "mountain people"- to a glorious "Alpine» character. In truth, however, the idea that dwelling in a mountain region has an ennobling influence on the human character is mostly fallacious. The Swiss are expected by the traveler to carry themselves in all things with the pride and dignity of people who are born and bred in the original home of European liberty. But civilizations and traditions of human freedom have always begun on the plains-by seashore and river bank. If all the facts are taken into account, it is rather a handicap than an advantage to a race to inhabit a mountain country, for in the earlier stages of civilization the mountain fastnesses

have imposed upon them the duty of sheltering alike fleeing patriots and criminal fugitives from justice. In later stages, again, mountains interfere greatly with development of the machinery of civilization. It has been facetiously pointed out that mountain air sharpens the appetite more than the wits, and there are some diseases attacking particularly the brain which are almost peculiar to mountain districts. The one favorable national circumstance of the Swiss is that their central position in regard to the great plains of Europe has put them in the track of all the chief currents of civilization. What they have achieved in spite of the handicap of their mountains is one of the marvelous stories of the human race. To these massive barriers they owe in the main their sense of national unity.

Industries; Chief Towns.-The Swiss depend for their support on various branches of industry, to which much attention has been given of late years. There are now large silk and cotton factories, while the watch-making industry established in Geneva since the end of the 16th century has long been famous. Other industries are: Embroidery, musical boxes, chocolate (Suchard, Cailler, etc.), shoemaking, straw plaiting, wood carving, aniline dyes, pottery and aluminum. Asphalt is worked by an English company at Val de Travers and Neuchâtel. In the lowlands the chief occupations are agriculture, horticulture and wine growing. In the highlands almost the sole industry is the rcaring of livestock. The principal imports are cereals, fruits, vegetables, colonial produce, animal food substances, iron and mineral products. Being an inland country, Switzerland has direct commercial intercourse only with the surrounding states; but the trade with other countries, especially Great Britain and the United States, is very important. A source of enormous profit is the catering for the thousands of tourists who invade the country. Switzerland is noted for its hotels, and it is no exaggeration to say that the Swiss are the most expert artists in hotel-keeping. The large modern establishments at Geneva, Vevey, Zürich, Lucerne, Interlaken, etc., are models of comfort and organization; the smaller hotels are often equally well conducted, and indeed a really bad inn is rarely met with in French or German Switzerland. In normal times the prices are extraordinarily moderate. A flourishing occupation is that of the professional guide, who is indispensable for expeditions among the higher mountains, especially on those which involve the passage of glaciers. As a class, these guides are intelligent and respectable men, well versed in their duties and thoroughly acquainted with the people and resources of the country. The town life of the Swiss is strongly affected by the hotel life of the tourists. The inhabitants are generally well educated and proficient in languages. Offering asylum as it does to political and social rebels of all countries, Switzerland is a kind of international clearing house for thought and theory. For many years it has been the free and open laboratory in which the schemes of anarchists, Bolsheviki, Nihilists, Young Egyptian and Young Turkey exiles were hatched. During the European War the country was the mecca of diplomats, conspirators and high-born refugees. The Gallic, the Teu