can senator.

I refer is not the proper model for an AmeriWill the senator from Illinois take notice? These bitter personalitics led to the assault on Sumner on 22 May by Preston S. Brooks, a representative from South Carolina, and a cousin of Senator Butler. The Senate had adjourned and Sumner was seated at his desk writing letters, when Brooks entered and said, "Mr. Sumner, I have read your speech carefully and with as much impartiality as was possible, and I feel it my duty to tell you that you have libeled my State and slandered a relative who is aged and absent, and I am come to punish you for it." He then struck Sumner a series of blows on the head with a gutta percha cane, until he fell bloody and senseless to the floor. An effort to expel Brooks from the House failed because of lack of two-thirds majority. While a resolution of censure was pending Brooks resigned, but was immediately re-elected by his constituents. His action was generally upheld by the Southern leaders and press. The indignation in the North was intense, and the incident crystallized sentiment against slavery more, perhaps, than any other single event had done up to this time.

Sumner was re-elected to the Senate in January 1857, but, owing to the state of his health he spent nearly four years abroad, returning in time to resume his seat in the Senate 5 Dec. 1859. It was not until June 1860, however, that he delivered an important speech on "The Barbarism of Slavery:" It was intended as a reply assertions recently made to the effect that slavery was a moral, social and political blessing, and "ennobling to both races, the white and black." The speech was a reservoir of facts drawn largely from Southern sources, and an appeal to the great moral sentiment of the North to help abolish the system.

to numerous

He

In the session of Congress which opened 3 Dec. 1860, Sumner devoted himself to preventing any compromise between the slave and the free States; for his object was the destruction of slavery. When the Southern senators withdrew as a result of secession, the committee was reorganized, and Sumner was made chairman of the committee on Foreign Relations. In this capacity he rendered the country signal service during the war. was largely instrumental in the surrender of the captured Confederate commissioners, Slidell and Mason, who had been taken from the English mail steamer Trent by Captain Wilkes while on the high seas. He showed the President that this would be in accordance with our doctrines and an abandonment of claims made by England to which we had always objected. He used all his influence to prevent foreign intervention, and opposed the use of force in an attempt to get the French troops out of Mexico, as it might result in war. He was opposed to the issuing of letters of marque, and when the bill was passed used every effort to prevent the law going into effect, in which he was successful. His argument was that it would embroil us with foreign nations. His speech in New York, 10 Sept. 1863, was a strong statement of the American position. He raked England for her unfriendly acts with respect to neutrality

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and for allowing Confederate cruisers to be fitted out in English ports, and called France to account for her intervention in Mexico. The speech had an important effect in putting a check on England. He made an exhaustive report on the French Spoliation Claims. He argued vigorously for the treaty for the purchase of Alaska in 1867. He was in favor of settling all questions of dispute with England and in bringing the two nations into relations of harmony and good will, and hence supported the efforts to settle the Alabama claims. Owing to a disagreement with President Grant and Republican senators over the acquisition of Santo Domingo, which Sumner opposed, he was removed from his chairmanship of the Committee on Foreign Relations, 10 March 1871,

Sumner supported the policy of emancipation and wished to take the step before Lincoln finally acted because he thought that it would prevent foreign intervention. He made the first public demand for emancipation by a responsible statesman on 1 Oct. 1861, before the State Republican Committee of Massachusetts, and re peated his demand in a number of cities in the next few months. In the session of Congress which met in December 1861, he spoke in favor of legislation to prevent the surrender of fugitive slaves by the Union army, and in favor of the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, the first public word on the subject since the Republican party came into power..

During the war and after he was active in furthering the interests of the negro. He was influential in getting ratified the treaty with England for the more effectual suppression of the slave trade. He proposed bills allowing colored persons to become mail carriers, for enlisting negroes freed by Confiscation Act and for receiving colored volunteers. He proposed and carried legislation preventing the exclusion of witnesses in the courts of the District of Columbia on account of color. He voted against the bill to admit West Virginia, because the Senate refused to amend it so that after 4 July 1863 slavery should cease in that State. He was continually urging Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. He introduced a bill in the Senate to repeal all fugitive slave laws, and succeeded in getting a similar bill, which had been passed in the House, through the Senate. He began the contest for negro suffrage, was a leader in his effort to prevent the exclusion of colored persons from street cars in the District of Columbia, supported a bill to secure for colored soldiers equal pay with the white and was energetic in getting the bill passed to establish the Freedman's Bureau, which Sumner called "a bridge from slavery to freedom." He also aided in forcing a repeal of the law which excluded colored testimony in the United States courts, and was largely responsible for the admission of a colored man to the bar of the Supreme Court, the privilege being granted by Chief Justice Chase on motion of Sumner. He offered an amendment to one of the reconstruction measures to the effect that "every constitution in the rebel States shall require the legislature to establish and maintain a system of public schools open to all without distinction of race or color."

On the question of reconstruction, Sumner

felt that the conditions must be faced by Congress and the President together, and hence opposed the policies of Lincoln and Johnson, viz., reconstruction by the executive. He considered this policy unconstitutional while_the Constitution supported the authority of Congress its duty "to guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government." He voted for the conviction of President Johnson in his impeachment trial.

After his removal as chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Sumner exerted little influence in the Senate, and occupied his time mainly in pressing civil rights bills for negroes. He supported Horace Greeley for President in the election of 1872, on the ground that he was an "unswerving" Republican, that principles must be preferred to party and that Grant was unfaithful to the Constitution and Republican principles.

The character of Sumner and his services to his country were both based on fidelity to great moral principles. He was sincere, unselfish, simple, kind, conscientious, honest and pure and without envy or personal animosity. He was also energetic, uncompromising, courageous and fearless, and indomitable in his purpose. On the other hand, while not entirely a man of one idea, his intense convictions on slavery often helped to defeat his desires, because of his inability to give sufficient weight to other important interests. He became egotistical, dogmatic, irritable, and was lacking in a sense of humor. Next to Lincoln he undoubtedly did more to win freedom for the colored race than any other man. His other great service was in keeping the country out of war with England and France during the period of the Civil War, when such a catastrophe might easily have led to a permanent dissolution of the Union.

Bibliography.- The best short life of Sumner is that by Moorfield Storey ('American Statesmen Series,' Boston 1900). Other biographies are those by Edward Lillie Pierce, 'Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner) (4 vols., Boston 1877-93); by Anna L. Dawes, 'Charles Sumner' (Makers of America Series, New York 1892); by George H. Haynes ('American Crisis Biographies, Philadelphia, Copyright, 1909); by G. H. Grimke, 'Life of Charles Sumner, the Scholar in Politics' (New York 1892). The "Works" of Sumner were published in 15 volumes, Boston 1874-83. A famous oration on Sumner is that by L. Q. C. Lamar, 27 April 1874. Consult also Shotwell, W. G., Life of Charles Sumner' (New York 1910), and Whipple, E. P., 'Recollections of Eminent Man. Some of Sumner's most famous speeches have been printed separately, viz., "Report on the War with Mexico," and "Speech on the Crime against Kansas" (Directors of Old South Work, Boston); “Address on War, containing True Grandeur of Nations"; "War System of Nations"; "Duel between France and Germany" (Boston).

MARCUS W. JERNEGAN, Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago.

SUMNER, George Watson, American naval officer: b. Michigan, 31 Dec. 1841. He was appointed to the navy in 1858. In the Civil War he participated in the bombardment of Forts Jackson and Saint Philip; commanded

the Massasoit on the James River, and with the Onondaga forced the Confederate ironclads to relinquish the purpose of attacking Grant's transports and base of supplies at City Point, Va. After the war he served in various capacities, was commandant of the naval station, Port Royal, S. C., 1899-1901; and in January 1901 was appointed commandant of the Philadelphia navy yard. Died Cincinnati, 5 Oct. 1924.

SUMNER, Increase, American statesman: b. Massachusetts, 1746; d. 1799. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1767; admitted to the bar in 1770, and in 1779 was a member of the State Constitutional Convention. He was elected to Congress in 1782, was a member of the United States Constitutional Convention in 1789, and in 1797 was elected governor of Massachusetts.

SUMNER, Samuel Storrow, American military officer: b. Pennsylvania, 6 Feb. 1842. He was appointed to the army from New York in 1861, served in the Civil War, and against the Indians in the campaigns from 1869 to 1878. In May 1898 he was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers and in the SpanishAmerican War was assigned to duty in Cuba. He was ordered to England as military attaché, but left there in 1900 to join the United States troops in China. Later he was sent to the Philippines, where he was promoted brigadiergeneral United States army in 1901, and majorgeneral, August 1903. His last service was in command of the Division of the Pacific, and he retired 6 Feb. 1906.

SUMNER, William Graham, American educator: b. Paterson, N. J., 30 Oct. 1840; d. 12 April 1910. He was graduated at Yale in 1863, studied abroad, was tutor at Yale in 1866-69, in 1867 took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church, was assistant at Calvary Church, New York, and rector of church of the Redeemer, Morristown, N. J., appointed professor of political economy and social science at Yale College in 1872. His writings include a translation of Lange's 'Commentary on Second Kings' (1872); History of American Currency (1874); Life of Andrew Jackson' (in American Statesmen' Series, 1882); 'What Social Classes Owe to Each Other' (1883); 'Problems in Political Economy) (1884); (Protectionism (1885); History of Banking in the United States' (1896); 'Robert Morris' (1892).

SUMPTUARY LAWS, a term often used in American political discussion with reference to laws regulating the sale of liquor. The original meaning, however, was the regulation by law of eating and drinking, wearing apparel and style of living generally. The early settlers of New England adopted harsh laws of this character, which have been exaggerated and caricatured in the fictitious Connecticut "Blue Laws of the Rev. Samuel A. Peters.

Sumptuary laws existed in ancient as well as modern times. One of the Roman laws or the Twelve Tables aimed at repressing extravagance in funerals. After the establishment of the censorship those holding this office had the right of punishing those guilty of luxurious living. After the Twelve Tables the first sumptuary law passed at Rome was the Lex Oppia (215 B.C.), directed exclusively against the ex

travagance of women in dress, jewelry, etc. This law was repealed 20 years later. The other sumptuary laws enacted at Rome were almost exclusively designed to keep down extravagance in entertainments. The Lex Julia, passed in the reign of Augustus, was the last sumptuary law passed at Rome, but a few endeavors were made under later emperors also to repress luxury by decrees of the Senate and imperial edicts. The last attempt of this nature that is known to have been made belongs to the reign of Nero. Sumptuary laws were revived by Charlemagne. Both he and Louis the Débonnaire promulgated capitularies against luxury in dress and furniture. Various other laws and decrees having a like object were made under many of the later kings of France, even down to Louis XV. A royal ordinance, dated 19 April 1737, forbids the common people (vilains) the use of calico, which was reserved for the nobility, and there are instances of the wives of commoners being fined in virtue of. this decree. In England sumptuary laws began to be enacted in the reign of Edward III, and continued to be passed down to the time of the Reformation. Most of them were repealed by 1 James I, ch. xxv, but they were not all expunged from the statute-book till 1856.

Sumptuary laws in the early colonial period of America were not confined to New England. Directions were sent to Virginia in 1621 not to permit any but members of the council to wear gold in their clothes, "or to wear silk till they make it themselves." In New England the Massachusetts magistrates prohibited the wearing of gold, silver or thread lace, all embroideries or needle-work in the form of caps, bands or rails, gold and silver girdles, and other extravagances which offended Puritan simplicity. The laws were, however, ignored or but slightly enforced, and gradually became obsolete. At present in the United States dress is solely a question of decency, and sumptuary laws are, in that sense, of the past.

SUMTER, Thomas, American military officer: b. Virginia, 1734; d. 1 June 1832. After the capture of Charleston by the British in 1780 he took the field as a brigadier-general at the head of a body of light horse and soon became one of the most active and able partisan leaders of the South. His bravery, endurance and unvarying cheerfulness and determination under reverses gained him from his followers the sobriquet of the "Carolina game cock," and Cornwallis confessed that he was one of his "greatest plagues." After gaining important successes over the British and Tories, he was, in September 1780, routed with considerable loss near the mouth of Fishing Creek on the Catawba by Tarleton. In 1781 he took a distinguished part in the battle of Eutaw Springs. The thanks of Congress were tendered him in 1791, and he was afterward sent to that body as a representative of South Carolina. In 1809 he was appointed United States Minister to Brazil and two years later was elected United States senator.

SUMTER, S. C., city, county-seat of Sumter County, on the main line and several branches of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, 80 miles north of Charleston. It is in an agricultural region, producing cotton, tobacco and vegetables, of which it exports large quantities.

It also has manufacturing interests of importance which include cotton factories, planing mills, sash and blind factories, etc. There is a national bank and a State bank. The city has a public high school founded in 1889, and is the seat of Saint Joseph's Academy, a Roman Catholic school for girls, and of the Sumter Military Academy and Female Seminary, a coeducational non-sectarian school. Since 1913 the commission form of government administers city affairs. Pop. (1920) 9,508.

SUMTER, Fort. See FORT SUMTER.

SUMY, soo'me, Russia, a town in the government of Kharkov, on the river Psiol, 83 miles north of the town of Kharkov. It has nine churches, a gymnasium, technical school, banks and a large sugar refinery, besides numerous distilleries. The soil is productive, and agricultural products are exported together with brandy. Four annual fairs give considerable impulse to trade. Pop. 51,500.

SUN, the great central body of the solar system. The aspect of the sun with which all are familiar from infancy shows that it is a shining globe. Astronomical measurements show that this globe is more than 100 times the diameter of the earth, and, therefore, more than 1,000,000 times its volume. Its small apparent diameter is due to its enormous distance of 93,000,000 miles. The following are more exact numerical particulars:

For methods of determining the distance and other quantities see ASTRONOMY, Theoretical. The aim of the present article is to set forth the physical constitution of the sun, so far as modern research has made it known.

One of the most certain results of research is that the sun is at an extremely high temperature, higher than any that we can produce in our furnaces. This is shown by two considerations. One is the enormous amount of energy radiated, which suffices to keep the earth warm and support life on its surface, notwithstanding the immense distance at which it is placed. Nothing but a hot body could radiate so great a volume of energy. Another proof of the high temperature is shown by the spectroscope, which discloses the vapor of iron and other refractory metals in the sun's atmosphere. It requires a hot furnace to melt iron. Much higher must be the temperature which would make it boil away like water. The temperature of the sun not only does this, but the fact that the spectral lines of iron are dark on a bright ground shows that the solar light emanates from a body yet hotter than the vapor of iron.

the telescope, under good atmospheric conditions, the entire photosphere appears as a darkish background, sprinkled with brighter grains or nodules. These "rice-grains" are quite irregular in size and form, and appear as if bright on a relatively dark or yellowish background. It is probable that they are produced by currents of heated matter from the interior, hereafter to be described, which are constantly rising to the surface, there to radiate their heat and then fall back again. When the intensity of the heat radiated from different parts of the photosphere is accurately measured, it is found that the amount of radiation diminishes from the centre of the disc to the limb, where it is least. The diminution is slow at first, but increases quite rapidly at the limb, where it is little more than one-half of that at the centre. The light diminishes in a still greater ratio than the heat. The tint of the light is also different

scope was first pointed at the sun, the observers were surprised to find that that object was now and then variegated by dark spots. These were observed by Galileo, Scheiner and Fabritius. The two latter published more or less elaborate treatises on the subject, but with their imperfect instruments they were not able to learn much as to the laws of these objects. We now know, with the modern perfected methods of observation, that the spots are of very different sizes, ranging from the minutest point visible in the telescope to a size so great as to be perceptible to the naked eye. The largest must, therefore, exceed the earth itself in diameter. These objects are usually very irregular in their outline, being frequently jagged and cornered, as if made by a shot or bunch of shot passing through a tin plate or wooden plank. They frequently appear in groups; indeed a spot visible to the naked eye commonly consists of a

at the centre and at the limb, although this would hardly be noticed by the eye. The light at the limb has more red in its composition than at the centre. This effect is especially noticeable at the time of a total or annular eclipse of the sun. When the moon has nearly covered the sun, the remaining light has a lurid aspect, as if the sun were shining through a smoky atmosphere, thus giving to observers the illusion that the sky is hazy. There can be no doubt of the cause of this appearance. The sun, like the earth, is surrounded by an atmosphere; but this atmosphere is cooler than the photosphere which sends out the light and heat. The existence of the atmosphere is demonstrated by the lines of the spectrum, as well as by the absorption of heat at the limb, which is greater than near the centre because the light coming from that portion of the photosphere has to pass through a greater depth of the atmosphere than when it rises directly upward from the centre.

The Solar Spots.- When the Galilean tele

group of these objects close together. The spots of the group may run into each other to any extent, forming an irregular and jagged mass. Sometimes a spot has almost the appearance of a crack in the photosphere. In the spot two portions can generally be distinguished, a dark interior called the "umbra" and a shaded border much brighter than the umbra, though not quite so bright as the photosphere, called the "penumbra." When the atmosphere is steady, the latter is seen, with a good telescope, to be not of uniform shade, but to be striated, presenting an appearance somewhat like that of a thatched roof. This can be seen better by a figure than by a long description. A spot seems black only by contrast with the brilliancy of the sun. If it were possible to cut off the sun's light, the light from the spot itself would be of dazzling brightness.

It was formerly supposed that the spots were openings in the photosphere, through which a darker interior was seen. This conclusion was reached because it was supposed that when

the spot approached the edge of the solar disc the penumbra looked broader on the side of the Fa spot next the edge. But careful observations made in recent times show that this is not the case. Sometimes the penumbra is broader at one edge and sometimes at another. It was also supposed that the spots might be something is in the nature of cooler dark metals floating on the photosphere. But this view also has been abandoned. It has recently been shown by Hale that a sun spot is an immense vortex, in which whirling electrically charged particles produce an intense magnetic field. Thus a sun spot resembles a terrestrial tornado. The observations of Evershed and St. John indicate that the #gases are rising from the interior of the sun toward the surface, flowing nearly radially outward above the surface from the centre of the spot. Measurements of the heat radiated from the spot, as compared with that of the neighboring disc, show that the spot is really cooler than the rest of the photosphere. Spectroscopic observations agree with this by showing a great absorption of the light coming from the interior of a spot.

Another salient feature of the sun is its rotation on an axis deviating only six degrees from a line perpendicular to the ecliptic. The time of rotation is shown by observations of the spots on the sun, which we see to move from east toward west. The relation of the sun to its axis of rotation is much the same as in the case of the earth. The sun's axis intersects the photosphere at two opposite points called the poles of the sun. A circle passing round the sun midway between the poles is called the solar equator. Distances north and south of the equator are called solar latitude. When we look at the sun at noon its north and south poles are near the upper and lower points of the disc; and the equator passes horizontally, or nearly so, across the centre of the disc. The position of the sun's equator is more exactly defined by the following numbers:

The earth in its annual course around the sun passes through the line of the nodes about 5 June and 5 December of each year. At these times the apparent paths of the spots across the sun's disc are straight lines. At the intermediate times they are more or less curved. In March the south pole is slightly turned toward us, and the paths of the spots are curved upward. In September the reverse is the case. We see only the north pole, and the paths are curved downward.

Observations of the spots lead to the unexpected conclusion that the equatorial regions of the sun rotate in less time than those nearer the poles, although the distance they have to go is greater. The sun is so much larger than the earth that, although the time of rotation is more than 25 times as long, yet the absolute linear velocity of the rotation near the equator is four times as great as that of the earth's rotation, being very nearly one mile per second.

The observations of Carrington give the period of rotation as follows:

The apparent time of rotation, as we see it, is nearly two days longer, because the earth has carried us forward in its annual motion while the sun is rotating, and the spot has to catch up to our direction before a rotation seems complete.

The rotation of the sun can also be determined by means of the spectroscope, through this instrument enabling us to determine whether a luminous body is approaching the earth, or receding from it. In consequence of the rotation, the photosphere on the east side of the sun is continually moving toward us, and that on the opposite side moving away from us. The observations made by this method agree with those made on the solar spots in giving a period of about 25 or 26 days; but they are discordant as to the variation with latitude. The angular motions in the different latitudes, found by two observers with the spectroscope, Duner and Adams, are as follows:

DAILY ANGULAR ROTATION OF THE SUN IN DIFFERENT LATITUDES, FROM SPOTS AND SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS.

It is a remarkable and interesting fact that the velocities thus determined by the displacement of spectral lines differ systematically when the lines of different elements are chosen. Thus, the values determined by Adams from the lines of iron, calcium and hydrogen, are as follows:

This difference agrees with much other evidence on the same point in indicating that the different elements effective in producing the lines lie at different levels around the bail of the sun.

The rotation of the sun must produce an ellipticity or bulging out of the equator, as in the case of the earth. But this effect is so small as to elude all astronomical measurement. To all appearance the sun, notwithstanding its rotation, is a perfect sphere.

Two very remarkable laws govern the solar spots, one relating to their frequency, the other to the region of the sun's disc on which they are seen. We recall the fact of the sun having